S;  -i 


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OF   THK 

University  of  California. 


Class 


AMERICAN  WATERWAYS 


THE  ANNALS 


AMERICAN   ACADEMY 


POLITICAL  AND   SOCIAL   SCIENCE 


ISSUED    BI-MONTHLY 


VOL.  XXXI,  No.  1.    JANUARY,  1908. 


Editor:  EMORY  R.  JOHNSON 

ASSOCIATE  editors:  L.  S.  ROWE,  SAMUEL  McCUNE  LINDSAY 

CARL  KELSEY,  JAMES  T.  YOUNG,  CHESTER 

LLOYD  JONES,  WARD  W.  PIERSON 


PHILADELPHIA 

American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science 

36th  and  Woodland  Avenue 

igoS 


^^P 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

OUR  NATIONAL  INLAND  WATERWAYS  POLICY i  , 

President  Roosevelt — (Memphis  Address). 

PRESENT  STATUS  OF  THE  PANAMA  PROJECT 12 

Brigadier-General  Henry  L.  Abbot,  U.  S.  A.,  Retired.  Late  Mem- 
ber of  the  Comit^  Technique,  sometime  Consulting  Engineer 
of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company;  late  Member  of  the 
IT.  S.  Board  of  Consulting  Engineers. 

LEGISLATIVE    PROGRAM   CONGRESS    SHOULD   ADOPT    FOR 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  AMERICAN  WATERWAYS 36 

Hon.  Joseph  E.  Ransdell,  LL.D.,  Member  of  Rivers  and  Harbors 
Committee  of  Congress  from  Lotusiana,  and  President  of 
the  National  Rivers  and  Harbors  Congress. 

THE  USE  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  AMERICAN  WATERWAYS . .        48 

Hon.  Francis  G.  Newlands,  U.S.  Senator  from  Nevada,  and  Vice- 
Chairman  of  the  Inland  Waterways  Commission. 

THE  DELAWARE  RIVER 67 

Hon.  J.  Hampton  Moore,  Member  of  Congress  from  Pennsylvania, 
and  President  Atlantic  Deeper  Waterways  Association. 

ENGINEERING    FEATURES    OF    CHESAPEAKE    AND     DELA- 
WARE, AND  NORFOLK-BEAUFORT  WATERWAYS 73 

Major  C.  A.  F.  Flager,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army. 

CAPE  COD  CANAL 81 

Wm.  Barclay  Parsons,  C.E.,  New  York. 

ATLANTIC    COASTWISE     CANALS:     THEIR     HISTORY    AND 

PRESENT  STATUS 92 

G.  D.  Luetscher,  Ph.D.,  New  York. 

THE  ANTHRACITE-TIDEWATER  CANALS 102 

Chester  Lloyd  Jones,  Ph.D.,  Instructor  in  Political  Science,  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia. 


C  0)1  tents  iii 

PAGE 

THE  NEW  YORK  CANALS 117 

Professor  John  A.  Fairlie,  Universitj^  of  Michigan,  Ann  Arbor, 
Michigan . 

TRANSPORTATION  ON  THE  GREAT  LAKES. 128 

Walter  Thayer,  Eastern  Manager  Erie  and  Western  Transporta- 
tion Company,  Philadelphia. 

THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  OHIO  RIVER 139 

John  L.  Vance,  President  Ohio  Valley  Improvement   Associa- 
tion . 

MISSISSIPPI  IMPROVEMENTS  AND  TRAFFIC  PROSPECTS 146 

R.  B.  Way,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Political  Science  and 
History,   Beloit  College,   Beloit,  Wis. 

WATER  POWER  IN  THE  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY 164 

Calvin   O.   Althouse,    Instructor  in   Department   of  Commerce, 
Central  High  School,  Philadelphia. 

THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  MISSOURI  RIVER  AND  ITS  USE- 
FULNESS AS  A  TRAFFIC  ROUTE. 178 

Lawrence    M.  Jones,    President   Missouri   Valley    Improvement 

Association. 

COLUMBIA  RIVER  IMPROVEMENT  AND  THE  PACIFIC  NORTH- 
WEST  .: 189 

Frederick  G.  Young,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Economics  and  Sociology,  . 
University  of  Oregon,  Eugene,  Ore. 

RECLAMATION  OF  ARID  WEST  BY  FEDERAL  GOVERNMENT        203 

Hon.  Arthur  P.  Davis,  Chief  Engineer  U.  S.  Reclamation    Ser- 
A'ice. 

THE  RELATION  OF  FORESTS  TO  STREAM  CONTROL 219 

Hon.  Gifford  Pinchot,  LTnited  States  Forester. 

THE  INLAND  WATERWAYS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  THE 
PLANS  UNDER  CONSIDERATION  FOR  THEIR  IMPROVE- 
MENT      228 

Urquhart  A.  Forbes,  Esq.,  London,  England. 

THE  PRESENT  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  GERMAN  INLAND  WATER- 
WAYS        246 

Professor  Walther  Lotz,  University  of  Munich,  Germany. 


19261S 


BOOK  DEPARTMENT 

Conducted  by  Chester  Lloyd  Jones 

Notes,  pp.  263-287. 

REVIEWS 

Barker — The  Political  Thought  of  Plato  and  Aristotle  (p.  287)  .  .  .C.  L.  Jones 

Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  X  (p.  288) W.  E.  Lingelbach 

Casson — The  Romance  of  Steel  (p.   290) W.  S.  Tower 

Doyle — English  Colonies  in  America  (p.    291) H.  V.  Ames 

McBain — DeWiit  Clinton  and  the  Origin  of  the  Spoils  System  in 

New  York  (p.  293) W.  T.  Root 

Osgood — The  American  Colonies   in  the  Seventeenth  Century, 

Vol.   Ill  (p.   294) D.  Y.  Thomas 

Ross — Sin   and  Society   (p.    295) H.   R.  Mussey 

Schuster — Tlic  Principles  of  German  Civil  Law  (p.  295)    C.  L.  Jones 

Small — .4  Jam  Smith  and  Modern  Sociology  (p.  296) H.  R.  Mussey 

Smith — The  Industrial  Conflict  (p.  297) .M.  O.  Lorenz 

Speed — The  Union  Cause  in  Kint-.tcky,  1860-1865  (p.  298)   H.  V.Ames 


LIST  OF  CONTINENTAL  AGENTS 

France:  L.  Larose,  Rue  Soufflot  22,  Paris. 

Germany:    Mayer  &  IMiiller,  2  Prince  Louis  Ferdinandstrasse,  Berlin,  N.  W. 

Italy:    Dirccione  del  Giornale  degli   Economisti,  via  Monte  Savello,  Palazzo 

Orsini,  Rome. 

Spain:    Libreria  Nacional   y   Extranjera  de  E.   Dossat,  antes,  E.   Capdevillc, 

9  Plaza  de  Santa  Ana,  Madrid. 


Copyright,  1908,  by  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science. 
All   rights   reserved. 


OUR  NATIONAL  INLAND  WATERWAYS   POLICY^ 

Under  any  circumstances  I  should  welcome  the  chance  of 
speaking  at  Memphis  in  the  old  historic  State  of  Tennessee,  rich 
in  its  glorious  past  and  in  the  certainty  of  an  even  greater  future; 
but  I  especially  congratulate  myself  that  I  am  able  to  speak  here 
on  an  occasion  like  this,  when  I  meet  not  only  the  citizens  of 
Tennessee,  but  many  of  the  citizens  of  Mississippi  and  Arkansas 
and  of  other  states  as  well ;  and  when  the  chief  executives  of  so. 
many  states  are  gathered  to  consider  a  subject  of  momentous 
interest  to  all.  The  Mississippi  Valley  is  a  magnificent  empire  in 
size  and  fertility.  It  is  better  adapted  to  the  development  of 
inland  navigation  than  any  other  valley  in  either  hemisphere;  for 
there  are  12,000  miles  of  waterway  now  more  or  less  fully 
navigable,  and  the  conditions  are  so  favorable  that  it  will  be  easy 
to  increase  the  extent  of  navigable  waterways  to  almost  any 
required  degree  by  canalization.  Early  in  our  industrial  history 
this  valley  was  the  seat  of  the  largest  development  of  inland  navi- 
gation in  the  United  States,  and  perhaps  you  will  pardon  my 
mentioning  that  the  first  steamboat  west  of  the  Alleghenies  was 
built  by  a  Roosevelt,  my  great-grandfather's  brother,  in  181 1,  for 
the  New  Orleans  trade,  and  in  that  year  made  the  trip  from 
Pittsburg  to  New  Orleans.  But  from  various  causes  river  and 
canal  transportation  declined  all  over  the  United  States  as  the 
railroad  systems  came  to  their  full  development.  It  is  our  business 
to  see  that  the  decline  is  not  permanent ;  and  it  is  of  interest  to 
remember  that  nearly  a  century  ago  President  Madison  advocated 
the  canalization  of  the  Mississippi. 

In  wealth  of  natural  resources  no  kingdom  of  Europe  can 
compare  with  the  Mississippi  \^alley  and  the  region  around  the 
Great  Lakes,  taken  together,  and  in  population  this  huge  fertile 
plain  already  surpasses  all  save  one  or  two  of  the  largest  Euro- 
pean kingdoms.  In  this  empire  a  peculiarly  stalwart  and  master- 
ful people  finds  itself  in  the  surroundings  best  fitted  for  the  full 
development  of  its  powers  and  faculties.     There  has  been  a  great 

iFrom   address   delivered   by    Tresident    Roosevelt    to   the   Deep    Waterway   Coa- 
vention  at  Memphis,  Tenn.,  October  4,  1907. 


2  The  .liuials  of  the  .luicricaii  Academy 

growth  of  manufacturing"  centers  in  the  valley ;  the  movement  is 
good  if  it  does  not  go  too  far;  but  I  most  earnestly  hope  that  this 
region  as  a  whole  will  remain  predominantly  agricultursl.  The 
people  who  live  in  the  country  districts,  and  who  till  the  small 
or  medium-sized  farms  on  which  they  live,  make  up  what  is  on 
the  whole  the  most  valuable  asset  in  our  national  life.  There  can 
be  just  as  real  progress  and  culture  in  the  country  as  in  the  city ; 
especially  in  these  days  of  rural  free  delivery,  trolleys,  bicycles, 
telephones,  good  roads,  and  school  improvements.  The  valley  of 
the  Alississippi  is  politically  and  connnercially  more  important 
than  any  other  valley  on  the  face  of  the  globe.  Here  more  than 
anywhere  else  will  be  determined  the  future  of  the  United  States 
and  indeed  of  the  whole  western  world  ;  and  the  type  of  civiliza- 
tion reached  in  this  mighty  valley,  in  this  vast  stretch  of  country 
lying  between  the  Alleghenies  and  the  Rockies,  the  Great  Lakes 
and  the  Gulf,  will  largely  fix  the  type  of  civilization  for  the  w^hole 
Western  Hemisphere.  Already,  as  our  history  shows,  the  West 
has  determined  our  national  political  development,  and  the  funda- 
mental principle  of  present  American  politics,  political  equality, 
was  originally  a  w'estern  idea. 

The  wonderful  variety  of  resources  in  different  portions  of 
the  valley  makes  the  demand  for  transportation  altogether  excep- 
tional. Coal,  lumber,  corn,  wheat,  cotton,  cattle — on  the  surface  of 
the  soil  and  beneath  the  soil  the  riches  are  great.  There  are 
already  evident  strong  tendencies  to  increase  the  carrying  of 
freight  from  the  northern  part  of  the  valley  to  the  Gulf.  Through- 
out the  valley  the  land  is  so  fertile  as  to  make  the  field  for  the 
farmer  peculiarly  attractive :  and  where  in  the  west  the  climate 
becomes  dr\er  we  enter  upon  the  ranching  country;  while  in  addi- 
tion to  the  products  of  the  soil  there  are  also  the  manufactures 
supplied  in  innumerable  manufacturing  centers,  great  and  small. 
Cities  of  astonishing  growth  are  found  everywhere  from  the  Gulf 
to  the  Great  Lakes,  from  the  Alleghenies  to  the  Rockies ;  most  of 
them  being  situated  on  the  great  river  which  flows  by  your  doors 
or  upon  some  of  its  numerous  navigable  tributaries.  Xew  mineral 
fields  are  discovered  every  year :  and  the  constantl}'  increasing 
use  of  all  the  devices  of  intensive  cultivation  steadily  adds  to  the 
productive  power  of  the  farms.  Above  all,  the  average  man  is 
honest,  intelligent,  self-reliant,  and  orderly,  and  therefore  a  good 


Our  Katio)iaI  Inland  ITatcnvays  Policy  3 

citizen ;  and  farmer  and  wageworker  alike — in  the  last  analysis  the 
two  most  important  men  in  the  community — enjoy  a  standard  of 
living,  and  have  developed  a  standard  of  self-respecting,  self- 
reliant  manhood,  which  are  of  good  augury  for  the  future  of  the 
entire  Republic.  No  man  can  foresee  the  limit  of  the  possibility 
of  development  in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

Such  being  the  case,  and  this  valley  being  literally  the  heart 

of  the  United   States,  all  that  concerns  its  welfare  must  concern 
f 
'likewise  the  whole  country.     Therefore,  the  Mississippi  River  and 

its  tributaries  ought  by  all  means  to  be  utilized  to  their  utmost 
possibility.  Facility  of  cheap  transportation  is  an  essential  in  our 
modern  civilization,  and  we  cannot  afford  any  longer  to  neglect 
the  great  highways  which  nature  has  provided  for  us.  These 
natural  highways,  the  waterways,  can  never  be  monopolized  by 
any  corporation.  They  belong  to  all  the  people,  and  it  is  in  the 
power  of  no  one  to  take  them  away.  Wherever  a  navigable  river 
runs  beside  railroads  the  problem  of  regulating  the  rates  on  the 
railroads  becomes  far  easier,  because  river  regulation  is  rate  regu- 
lation. When  the  water  rate  sinks,  the  land  rate  cannot  be  kept 
at  an  excessive  height.  Therefore  it  is  of  national  importance  to 
develop  these  streams  as  highways  to  the  fullest  extent  which  is 
genuinely  profitable.  Year  by  year  transportation  problems  become 
more  acute,  and  the  time  has  come  when  the  rivers  really  fit  to 
serve  as  arteries  of  trade  should  be  provided  with  channels  deep 
enough  and  wide  enough  to  make  the  investment  of  the  necessary 
money  profitable  to  the  public.  The  National  Government  should 
undertake  this  work.  Where  the  immediately  abutting  land  is 
markedly  benefited,  and  this  benefit  can  be  definitely  localized,  I 
trust  that  there  will  be  careful  investigation  to  see  whether  some 
way  can  be  devised  by  which  the  immediate  beneficiaries  may  pay 
a  portion  of  the  expenses — as  is  now  the  custom  as  regards  certain 
classes  of  improvements  in  our  municipalities ;  and  measures  should 
be  taken  to  secure  from  the  localities  specially  benefited  proper 
terminal  facilities.  The  expense  to  the  Nation  of  entering  upon 
such  a  scheme  of  river  improvement  a-  that  w^hich  I  believe  it 
should  undertake,  will  necessarily  be  great.  Many  cautious  and 
conservative  people  will  look  askance  upon  the  project,  and  from 
every  standpoint  it  is  necessary,  if  we  wish  to  make  it  successful, 
that  we   should   enter  upon   it  only   under   conditions   which   will 


4  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

guarantee  the  Nation  against  waste  of  its  money,  and  which  will 
insure  us  against  entering  upon  any  project  until  after  the  most 
elaborate  expert  examination,  and  reliable  calculation  of  the  pro- 
portion between  cost  and  benefit.  In  any  project  like  this  there 
should  be  a  definite  policy,  and  a  resolute  purpose  to  keep  in  mind 
that  the  only  improvements  made  should  be  those  really  national 
in  their  character.  We  should  act  on  the  same  principle  in  im- 
proving our  rivers  that  we  should  follow  in  improving  our  harbors. 
The  great  harbors  are  of  consequence  not  merely  to  the  immediate 
localities,  but  to  immense  stretches  of  country;  and  the  same  is 
true  of  the  great  rivers.  It  is  these  great  rivers  and  great  harbors 
the  improvement  of  which  is  of  primary  national  interest.  The 
main  streams  should  be  improved  to  the  highest  practical  degree 
of  efficiency  before  improvements  are  attempted  on  the  branches, 
and  work  should  be  undertaken  only  when  completion  is  in  sight 
within  a  reasonable  time,  so  that  assured  results  may  be  gained 
and  the  communities  afifected  depend  upon  the  improvements. 
Moreover,  as  an  incident  in  caring  for  the  river  so  that  it  may 
become  an  efficient  channel  of  transportation,  the  United  States 
Government  should  do  its  full  part  in  levee  building,  which,  in 
the  lower  reaches  of  the  river,  will  not  only  give  a  channel  for 
commerce,  but  will  also  give  protection  to  the  adjacent  bottom 
lands. 

Immense  sums  have  already  been  spent  upon  the  Mississippi 
by  the  States  and  the  Nation,  yet  much  of  it  remains  practically 
unused  for  commerce.  The  reasons  for  this  fact  are  many.  One 
is  that  the  work  done  by  the  National  Government  at  least  has  not 
been  based  upon  a  definite  and  continuous  plan.  Appropriations 
by  Congress,  instead  of  assuring  the  steady  progress  and  timely 
completion  of  each  piece  of  work  as  it  was  undertaken,  have  been 
irregular  and  uncertain.  As  a  direct  consequence,  far-reaching 
plans  have  been  discouraged  and  continuity  in  execution  has  been 
made  impossible.  It  is  altogether  unlikely  that  better  results  will 
be  obtained  so  long  as  the  method  is  followed  of  making  partial 
appropriations  at  irregular  intervals  for  works  which  should  never 
be  undertaken  until  it  is  certain  that  they  can  be  carried  to  com- 
pletion within  a  definite  and  reasonable  time.  Planned  and  orderly 
development  is  essential  to  the  best  use  of  every  natural  resource, 
and  to  none  more  than  to  the  best  use  of  our  inland  waterways.     In 


Our  Kational  Inland  JVafcrzi'ays  Policy  5 

the  case  of  the  waterways  it  has  been  conspicuously  absent.  Be- 
cause such  foresight  was  lacking,  the  interests  of  our  rivers  have 
been  in  fact  overlooked,  in  spite  of  the  immense  sums  spent  upon 
them.  It  is  evident  that  their  most  urgent  need  is  a  farsighted 
and  comprehensive  plan,  dealing  not  with  navigation  alone,  nor 
with  irrigation  alone,  but  considering  our  inland  waterways  as  a 
whole,  and  with  reference  to  every  use  to  which  they  can  be  put. 
The  central  motive  of  such  a  plan  should  be  to  get  from  the 
streams  of  the  United  States  not  only  the  fullest  but  also  the  most 
permanent  service  they  are  capable  of  rendering  to  the  Nation  as 
a  whole. 

The  industries  developed  under  the  stimulus  of  the  railroads 
are  for  the  most  part  permanent  industries,  and  therefore  they 
form  the  basis  for  future  development.  But  the  railroads  have 
shown  that  they  alone  cannot  meet  the  demands  of  the  country  for  / 
transportation,  and  where  this  is  true  the  rivers  should  begin  to 
supplement  the  railroads,  to  the  benefit  of  both,  by  relieving  them 
of  certain  of  the  less  profitable  classes  of  freight.  The  more 
farseeing  railroad  men,  I  am  glad  to  tell  you,  realize  this  fact,  and 
many  of  them  have  become  earnest  advocates  of  the  improvement 
of  the  Mississippi,  so  that  it  may  become  a  sort  of  inland  sea- 
board, extending  from  the  Gulf  far  into  the  interior,  and  I  hope 
ultimately  to  the  Great  Lakes.  An  investigation  of  the  proposed 
Lakes-to-the-Gulf  deep  waterway  is  now  in  progress  under  an 
appropriation  of  the  last  Congress.  We  shall  await  its  results 
with  the  keenest  interest.  The  decision  is  obviously  of  capital 
importance  to  our  internal  development  and  scarcely  less  so  in 
relation  to  external  commerce. 

This  is  but  one  of  the  many  projects  which  it  is  time  to  con- 
sider, although  a  most  important  one.  Plans  for  the  improvement 
of  our  inland  navigation  may  fairly  begin  with  our  greatest  river 
and  its  chief  tributaries,  but  they  cannot  end  there.  The  lands 
which  the  Columbia  drains  include  a  vast  area  of  rich  grain  fields 
and  fruit  lands,  much  of  which  is  not  easily  reached  by  railways. 
The  removal  of  obstructions  in  the  Columbia  and  its  chief  tribu- 
taries would  open  to  navigation  and  inexpensive  freight  transpor- 
tation fully  2,000  miles  of  channel.  The  Sacramento  and  San 
Jaoquin  rivers  with  their  tidal  openings  into  San  Francisco  Bay  are 
partly  navigable  now.     Their  navigation  should  be  maintained  and 


6  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

improved,  so  as  to  open  the  marvelously  rich  valley  of  California 
to  inexpensive  traffic,  in  order  to  facilitate  both  rate  regulation 
and  the  control  of  the  waters  for  other  purposes.  And  many  other 
rivers  of  the  United  States  demand  improvement,  so  as  better  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  increasing  production  from  the  soil, 
increasing  manufacture,  and  a  rapidly  growing  population. 

While  thus  the  improvement  of  inland  navigation  is  a  vital 
problem,  there  are  other  questions  of  no  less  consequence  con- 
nected with  our  waterways.  One  of  these  relates  to  the  purity  of 
waters  used  for  the  supply  of  towns  and  cities,  to  the  prevention 
of  pollution  by  manufacturing  and  other  industries,  and  to  the 
protection  of  drainage  areas  from  soil  wash  through  forest  cover- 
ing or  judicious  cultivation.  With  our  constantly  increasing 
population  this  question  becomes  more  and  more  pressing,  because 
the  health  and  safety  of  great  bodies  of  citizens  are  directly 
involved. 

Another  important  group  of  questions  concerns  the  irrigation 
of  arid  lands,  the  prevention  of  floods,  and  the  reclamation  of 
swamps.  Already  many  thousands  of  homes  have  been  established 
on  the  arid  regions,  and  the  population  and  wealth  of  seventeen 
states  and  territories  have  been  largely  increased  through  irriga- 
tion. Yet  this  means  of  national  development  is  still  in  its  infancy, 
and  it  will  doubtless  long  continue  to  multiply  homes  and  increase 
the  productiveness  and  power  of  the  Nation.  The  reclamation  of 
overflow  lands  and  marshes,  both  in  the  interior  and  along  the 
coasts,  has  already  been  carried  on  with  admirable  results,  but  in 
this  field,  too,  scarcely  more  than  a  good  beginning  has  yet  been 
made.  Still  another  fundamentally  important  question  is  that  of 
water  power.  Its  significance  in  the  future  development  of  our 
whole  country,  and  especially  of  the  West,  is  but  just  beginning 
to  be  understood.  The  plan  of  the  City  of  Los  Angeles,  for  ex- 
ample, to  bring  water  for  its  use  a  distance  of  nearly  250  miles — 
perhaps  the  boldest  project  of  the  kind  in  modern  times — promises 
not  only  to  achieve  its  purpose,  but  in  addition  to  produce  a  water 
power  sufficiently  valuable  to  pay  large  interest  on  the  investment 
of  over  $23,000,000. 

Hitherto  such  opportunities  for  using  water  to  double  purpose 
have  not  always  been  seized.  Thus  it  has  recently  been  shown  that 
water  enough  is  flowing  \mused  over  government  dams,  built  to 


Our  National  Inland  IVatcrz^'ays  Policy  7 

improve  navigation,  to  produce  many  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
horsepower.  It  is  computed  that  the  annual  value  of  the  availahle 
but  unused  water  power  in  the  United  States  exceeds  the  annual 
value  of  the  products  of  .all  our  mines.  Furthermore,  it  is  calcu- 
lated that  under  judicious  handling  the  power  of  our  streams  may 
be  made  to  pay  for  all  the  works  required  for  the  complete  devel- 
opment and  control  of  our  inland  waterways. 

Forests  are  the  most  efifective  preventers  of  floods,  especially 
when  they  grow  on  the  higher  mountain  slopes.  The  national 
forest  policy,  inaugurated  primarily  to  avert  or  mitigate  the 
timber  famine  which  is  now  beginning  to  be  felt,  has  been  effective 
also  in  securing  partial  control  of  floods  by  retarding  the  run-off 
and  checking  the  erosion  of  the  higher  slopes  within  the  national 
forests.  Still  the  loss  from  soil  wash  is  enormous.  It  is  computed 
that  one-fifth  of  a  cubic  mile  in  volume,  or  one  billion  tons  in 
weight  of  the  richest  soil  matter  of  the  United  States,  is  annually 
gathered  in  storm  rivulets,  washed  into  the  rivers,  and  borne  into 
the  sea.  The  loss  to  the  farmer  is  in  effect  a  tax  greater  than  all 
other  land  taxes  combined,  and  one  yielding  absolutely  no  return. 
The  Department  of  Agriculture  is  now  devising  and  testing  means 
to  check  this  enormous  waste  through  improved  methods  of  agri- 
culture and  forest  management. 

Citizens  of  all  portions  of  the  country  are  coming  to  realize  ' 
that,  however  important  the  improvement  of  navigation  may  be, 
it  is  only  one  of  many  ends  to  be  kept  in  view.  The  demand  for 
navigation  is  hardly  more  pressing  than  the  demands  for  reclaim- 
ing lands  by  irrigation  in  the  arid  regions  and  by  drainage  in  the 
humid  lowlands,  or  for  utilizing  the  water  power  now  running  to 
waste,  or  for  purifying  the  waters  so  as  to  reduce  or  remove  the 
tax  of  soil  waste,  to  promote  manufactures  and  safeguard  life. 
It  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  adopt  not  a  jumble  of  unrelated  plans, 
but  a  single  comprehensive  scheme  for  meeting  all  the  demands 
so  far  as  possible  at  the  same  time  and  by  the  same  means.  This 
is  the  reason  why  the  Inland  Waterways  Commission  was  created 
in  March  last,  largely  in  response  to  petitions  from  citizens  of  the 
interior,  including  many  of  the  members  of  this  Congress.  Broad 
instructions  were  given  to  the  Commission  in  accordance  with  this 
general  policy  that  no  plan  should  be  prepared  for  the  use  of  any 
stream  for  a  single  purpose  without  carefully  considering,  and  so 


r 


8  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

far  as  practicable  actually  providing  for,  the  use  of  that  stream  for 
every  other  purpose.  Plans  for  navigation  and  power  should  pro- 
vide with  special  care  for  sites  and  terminals,  not  only  for  the 
immediate  present,  but  also  for  the  future.  It  is  because  of  my 
conviction  in  these  matters  that  I  am  here.  The  Inland  Water- 
ways Commission  has  a  task  broader  than  the  consideration  of 
waterways  alone.  There  is  an  intimate  relation  between  our 
streams  and  the  development  and  conservation  of  all  the  other 
great  permanent  sources  of  wealth.  It  is  not  possible  rightly  to 
consider  the  one  without  the  other.  No  study  of  the  problem  of 
the  waterways  could  hope  to  be  successful  which  failed  to  con- 
sider also  the  remaining  factors  in  the  great  problem  of  conserving 
all  our  resources.  Accordingly,  I  have  asked  the  Waterways  Com- 
mission to  take  account  of  the  orderly  development  and  conser- 
vation, not  alone  of  the  waters,  but  also  of  the  soil,  the  forests, 
the  mines,  and  all  the  other  natural  resources  of  our  country. 

Many  of  these  resources  which  we  have  been  in  the  habit  of 
calling  inexhaustible  are  being  rapidly  exhausted,  or  in  certain 
regions  have  actually  disappeared.  Coal  mines,  oil  and  gas  fields, 
and  iron  mines  in  important  numbers  are  already  worked  out.  The 
coal  and  oil  measures  which  remain  are  passing  rapidly,  or  have 
actually  passed,  into  the  possession  of  great  corporations,  who 
acquire  ominous  power  through  an  unchecked  control  of  these 
prime  necessities  of  modern  life ;  a  control  without  supervision  of 
any  kind.  We  are  consuming  our  forests  three  times  faster  than 
they  are  being  reproduced.  Some  of  the  richest  timber  lands  of 
this  continent  have  already  been  destroyed,  and  not  replaced,  and 
other  vast  areas  are  on  the  verge  of  destruction.  Yet  forests, 
unlike  mines,  can  be  so  handled  as  to  yield  the  best  results  of  use, 
without  exhaustion,  just  like  grain  fields. 

Our  public  lands,  whose  highest  use  is  to  supply  homes  for 
our  people,  have  been  and  are  still  being  taken  in  great  quantities 
by  large  private  owners,  to  whom  home-making  is  at  the  very  best 
but  a  secondary  motive  subordinate  to  the  desire  for  profit.  To 
allow  the  public  lands  to  be  worked  by  the  tenants  of  rich  men  for 
the  profit  of  the  landlords,  instead  of  by  freeholders  for  the  live- 
lihood of  their  wives  and  children,  is  little  less  than  a  crime  against 
our  people  and  our  institutions.  The  great  central  fact  of  the 
public  land  situation,  as  the  Public  Lands  Commission  well  said,  Is 


Our  National  Inland  IVatcrzcays  Policy  9 

that  the  amount  of  pubHc  land  patented  by  the  government  to  indi- 
viduals is  increasing  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  number  of  new 
homes.  It  is  clear  beyond  peradventure  that  our  natural  resources 
have  been  and  are  still  being  abused,  that  continued  abuse  will 
destroy  them,  and  that  we  have  at  last  reached  the  forks  of  the 
road.  We  are  face  to  face  with  the  great  fact  that  the  whole 
future  of  the  Nation  is  directly  at  stake  in  the  momentous  decision 
which  is  forced  upon  us.  Shall  we  continue  the  waste  and  destruc- 
tion of  our  natural  resources,  or  shall  we  conserve  them  ?  There  is 
no  other  question  of  equal  gravity  now  before  the  Nation. 

It  is  the  plain  duty  of  those  of  us  who  for  the  moment  are 
responsible  to  make  inventory  of  the  natural  resources  which  have 
been  handed  down  to  us,  to  forecast  as  well  as  we  may  the  needs 
of  the  future,  and  so  to  handle  the  great  sources  of  our  prosperity 
as  not  to  destroy  in  advance  all  hope  for  the  prosperity  of  our 
descendants. 

As  I  have  said  elsewhere,  the  conservation  of  natural  resources 
is  the  fundamental  problem.  Unless  we  solve  that  problem  it  will 
avail  us  little  to  solve  all  others.  To  solve  it,  the  whole  Nation 
must  undertake  the  task  through  their  organizations  and  associa- 
tions, through  the  men  whom  they  have  made  specially  responsible 
for  the  welfare  of  the  several  States,  and  finally  through  Congress 
and  the  Executive.  As  a  preliminary  step,  the  Inland  WaterwayTI 
Commission  has  asked  me  to  call  a  conference  on  the  conservation 
of  natural  resources,  including,  of  course,  the  streams,  to  meet  in 
Washington  during  the  coming  winter.  I  shall  accordingly  call 
such  conference.  It  ought  to  be  among  the  most  important  gather- 
ings in  our  history,  for  none  have  had  a  more  vital  question  to  ; 
consider. 

There  is  a  great  national  project  already  under  way  which 
renders  the  improvement  of  the  Mississippi  River  and  its  tribu- 
taries specially  needful.  I  mean  the  Panama  Canal.  The  digging 
of  that  canal  will  be  of  benefit  to  the  whole  country,  but  most  of 
all  to  the  States  of  the  Pacific  slope  and  the  Gulf;  and  if  the 
Mississippi  is  properly  improved,  to  the  States  through  which  it 
flows.  The  digging  of  the  Panama  Canal  is  the  greatest  engi- 
neering feat  which  has  yet  been  attempted  on  this  globe.  The 
work  has  been  going  on  most  successfully  and  with  fewer  draw- 
backs and  difficulties  than  I  had  dared  hope.     When  under  our 


10 


The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 


treaty  with  Panama  we  took  possession  of  the  Canal  Zone  I  was 
confident  that  we  should  be  able  to  build  the  canal,  but  1  took  it 
for  granted  that  we  should  meet  many  unexpected  difficulties,  not 
only  in  the  actual  work,  but  through,  and  because  of,  the  diseases 
which  had  made  the  Isthmus  a  byword  of  unhealthfulness.  The 
work  done  in  making  the  conditions  on  the  Isthmus  healthy,  how- 
ever, has  been  so  successful  that  at  present  the  death  rate  among 
the  thousands  of  Americans  engaged  in  the  canal  work  is  lower 
than  in  most  localities  in  the  United  States.  The  organization  has 
been  perfected,  the  machinery  installed,  and  the  actual  work,  of 
the  dredges,  the  steam  shovels,  and  the  dirt  trains,  is  going  on  with 
constantly  increasing  rapidity  and  efifectiveness.  In  the  month  of 
September  just  closed  over  fourteen  hundred  thousand  cubic  yards 
of  material  were  removed,  chiefly  from  the  Culebra  Cut — the 
record  removal,  two  hundred  thousand  yards  better  than  the 
August  record,  of  which  I  spoke  the  day  before  yesterday — and  if 
this  rate  can  be  kept  up,  as  I  believe  it  will  be  kept  up,  the  work 
of  digging  will  be  through  in  half  a  dozen  years.  The  finishing 
of  the  locks  of  the  great  dam  may  take  a  little  longer ;  but  it  begins 
to  look  as  though  the  work  will  be  completed  even  sooner  than  we 
had  estimated. 

Remember,  gentlemen,  that  any  work  like  this  entails  grave 
responsibilities.  The  one  intolerable  position  for  a  self-respecting 
nation,  as  for  a  self-respecting  man,  is  to  blufif  and  then  not  be 
able  to  make  good.  We  have  accepted  the  IVIonroe  doctrine  as  a 
cardinal  feature  of  our  foreign  policy.  We  have  undertaken  not 
only  to  build  but  to  police  and  to  guard  the  Panama  Canal.  This 
means,  unless  we  are  willing  to  accept  the  humiliation  of  being 
treated  some  time  by  some  strong  nation  as  a  vain  and  weak  brag- 
gart, that  we  must  build  and  maintain  our  navy  at  the  highest  point 
of  efficiencv.  When  the  canal  is  finished  our  navy  can  move  from 
one  ocean  to  the  other  at  will ;  for,  remember  that  our  doors  open 
on  both  oceans.  Until  then  our  battle  fleet,  which  should  always 
be  kept  and  maneuvered  as  a  unit,  ought  now  to  appear  in  our 
home  waters  in  one  ocean  and  now  to  appear  in  our  home  waters 
in  the  other.  yXnd,  oh  my  friends  and  fellow-Americans,  I  most 
earnestly  ho])e  all  our  people  will  remember  that  in  the  funda- 
mental questions  most  deeply  afifecting  the  life  of  the  Nation  there 
can  be  no  proper  division  on  party  lines.     Matters  of  such  grave 


Our  National  Inland  IVatcm^ays  Policy  ii 

moment  should  be  dealt  with  along  the  lines  of  consistent  and  well 
thought-out  policy,  without  regard  to  any  change  of  administra- 
tion or  of  party  at  Washington.  Such  questions  as  the  upbuilding 
and  maintenance  of  the  United  States  navy,  the  completion  of  t^e 
Panama  Canal  in  accordance  with  the  plans  now  being  carried 
out,  the  conservation  of  our  national  resources,  and  the  improve- 
ment of  the  Mississippi  River,  are  not  party  questions.  I  am 
striving  to  acomplish  what  I  can  in  such  matters  as  these  because 
the  welfare  of  the  Nation  imperiously  demands  the  action  that  I 
am  taking.  It  is  action  in  the  interest  of  all  the  people,  and  the 
need  for  it  will  be  as  great  long  after  I  have  passed  out  of  public 
life  as  it  is  now.  On  these  great  points  that  I  have  mentioned,  as 
on  others  I  could  mention,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  Nation  the 
policy  is  everything,  while  it  is  of  little  importance  who  carries 
it  out  so  long  as  it  actually  is  carried  out.  Therefore,  I  hope  you 
will  see  to  it,  according  to  your  best  endeavor,  that  the  policy  is 
accepted  as  permanent,  as  something  to  be  persevered  in  because 
of  the  interest  of  the  whole  people,  and  without  regard  to  any 
possible  political  changes. 


PRESENT  STATUS  OF  THE  PANAMA  PROJECT 


By  Brigadier-General  Henry  L.  Abbot,  U.  S.  A.,  Retired, 

Late  member  of  the  Comite  Technique,  sometime  Consulting  Engineer  of  the 

New  Panama  Canal  Company ;  and  late  member  of  the 

U.  S.  Board  of  Consulting  Engineers. 


To  form  an  intelligent  appreciation  of  the  present  status  of 
the  work  upon  the  Isthmus  one  must  understand  the  physical  con- 
ditions there  existing,  the  character  of  the  project  adopted  for  the 
canal,  the  organization  imder  which  the  work  is  now  in  progress, 
and  what  has  been  accomplished.     Each  will  be  considered  in  turn. 

When  the  concessions  and  property  were  transferred  by  the 
New  French  Company  to  the  United  States,  on  May  4,  1904,  it 
was  unavoidable,  before  serious  work  of  construction  could  be  inau- 
gurated, that  much  preparatory  work  should  be  undertaken,  and 
that  a  definite  project  for  the  canal  should  be  elaborated  and 
approved  by  Congress — which  latter  was  not  done  until  June  29, 
1906.  The  actual  period  of  preparation  has  covered  about  three 
years,  and  it  would  be  easy  to  show  that  in  general  the  time  has 
been  well  spent ;  but  the  details  of  what  has  been  done  in  advance 
of  the  adoption  of  the  final  project  pertain  rather  to  history  than  to 
the  present  inquiry.  It  suffices  to  state  that  the  cities  of  Panama 
and  Colon,  and  the  Zone  itself,  have  been  supplied  with  potable 
water  and  placed  in  a  sanitary  condition  entirely  satisfactory ;  that 
the  requisite  engineering  plant  and  a  large  force  of  laborers,  some 
30,000  men  on  the  canal  and  railroad,  with  comfortable  quarters  and 
good  arrangements  for  messing  have  been  provided ;  that  much  of 
the  Panama  Railroad  has  been  double-tracked,  and  its  yards,  docks 
and  other  facilities  largely  extended :  and,  finally,  that  at  the  end 
of  March,  1907,  when  the  present  canal  organization  was  inaugu- 
rated, nearly  six  million  cubic  yards  had  been  excavated  from  the 
great  Culebra  cut  at  an  average  cost  of  about  78  cents  per  yard ; 
about  three  and  a  half  millions  had  been  dredged,  and  work  on  the 
locks  and  dams  was  beginning.  Such,  in  brief,  was  the  status  early 
in  the  current  year.  It  remains  to  consider  the  elements  of  the 
problem  as  now  presented. 

(12) 


Present  Status  of  the  Panama  Project  13 

Physical  Conditions  on  the  IstJunns. 

There  are  no  mountains  properly  so  called  on  the  general  line 
of  the  canal ;  indeed  the  highest  summits  of  the  continental  divide 
in  this  district  hardly  exceed  1,500  feet  above  tide,  while  at  the 
Culebra  where  the  route  crosses  it,  and  where  much  work  has  been 
done  already,  the  original  level  did  not  exceed  about  345  feet,  now 
reduced  to  312  feet  by  a  slight  change  in  line.  For  about  seventeen 
miles  between  Bohio  and  Empire,  igneous  rock  in  the  form  of 
brechias,  or  conglomerates,  or  massive  overflows  known  locally  as 
the  rock  of  Gamboa,  lies  at  or  near  the  surface ;  but  on  both  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  slopes  it  is  overlain  by  ancient  sedimentary 
formations  of  the  tertiary  period,  composed  of  much  softer  mate- 
rials but  occasionally  traversed  by  igneous  veins.  Nearer  the  coasts 
anciQut  and  modern  alluvial  deposits  occur.  The  deep  cut  between 
Bas  Obispo  and  the  southern  terminus  of  the  Culebra  lies  chiefly 
in  the  softer  material ;  its  total  length  hardly  exceeds  seven  miles, 
and  only  about  one  mile  of  it  is  really  of  a  formidable  character  by 
reason  of  its  height. 

Much  has  been  said  about  danger  to  the  canal  from  earth- 
quakes, which  are  popularly  supposed  to  be  frequent  throughout  all 
Central  America.  Fortunately  the  long  chains  of  volcanoes  ap- 
proaching from  the  north  and  from  the  south  both  deflect  to  the 
eastward  before  reaching  the  Canal  Zone,  to  appear  in  the  Lesser 
Antilles.  The  Republic  of  Panama  lies  near  the  middle  of  a  quiet 
district  between  Chiriqui  and  Tolima,  some  six  hundred  miles 
apart,  where  no  volcanic  eruption  has  occurred  since  the  miocene 
tertiary,  and  where  such  earth  movements  as  do  occur  are  those 
transmitted  with  lessened  intensity  from  distant  foci  of  disturbance. 
Since  the  foundation  of  the  old  city  of  Panama,  in  August,  15 19, 
only  two  earthquakes  classed  as  severe  are  of  record ;  but  one  of 
them,  in  1621.  is  considered  as  doubtful  by  M.  de  Montessus  after 
a  discussion  of  the  ancient  documents,  and  in  this  opinion  he  is 
supported  by  recent  local  studies.  The  other,  occurring  on  Sep- 
tember 7,  1882,  coincided  in  time  with  a  violent  earthquake  at  Sucia, 
on  the  Atrato  River,  about  fifty  miles  from  the  Atlantic.  It  caused 
some  unimportant  damage  at  Panama  and  on  the  line  of  the  rail- 
road, but  the  fact  that  it  did  not  rupture  the  exceptionally  flat 
arches  of  the  ruins  of  the  old  Santo  Domingo  Church,  burned  in 
March,  1756,  demonstrates  that  no  serious  injury  would  have  been 


14  'i^^^c  ^liuials  of  the  Aiiicricaii  Academy 

done  to  the  massive  constructions  of  the  projected  canal.  These 
views  as  to  the  comparative  immunity  of  the  route  are  supported 
by  recent  direct  observations  covering  forty  months.  Dehcate 
seismographs  were  estabHshed  at  Panama ;  and  the  records,  com- 
pared with  those  kept  simultaneously  at  San  Jose  de  Costa  Rica 
under  governmental  control,  showed  only  four  light  shocks,  as 
against  ninety-one  light  and  thirty-five  strong  shocks.  No  route 
between  the  oceans — indeed  no  point  on  the  earth's  surface — is 
wholly  exempt  from  such  dangers,  but  the  canal  follows  the  line 
where  exemption  seems  most  probable. 

The  chief  technical  difficulty  is  presented  by  the  Chagres  River, 
whose  banks  must  be  closely  followed  between  Gatun  and  Gamboa, 
a  distance  more  than  half  that  between  the  oceans.  This  turbulent 
neighbor  gives  rise  to  more  complex  problems  than  the  passage  of 
the  mountain  ranges  which  barred  the  routes  of  our  Pacific,  rail- 
roads,— any  engineering  project  must  be  adjusted  to  the  terrain, 
and  here  the  river  dominates. 

The  stream  is  a  typical  torrent  of  the  tropics,  characterized  in 
nine  months  of  the  year  by  violent  freshets,  which  sometimes,  but 
rarely,  develop  into  destructive  floods,  inundating  the  entire  valley. 
The  volume  at  Gamboa  may  then  attain  80,000  feet-seconds :  at 
Bohio,  115,000  feet-seconds;  and  at  Gatun  probably  160,000  feet- 
seconds, — nearly  that  of  the  Potomac  at  Great  Falls,  Md.  If  over- 
generous  in  the  rainy  season,  the  Chagres  becomes  niggardly  in  the 
three  dry  months,  when  its  flow,  largely  supplied  by  ground  water, 
is  insufficient  to  operate  a  canal  wnth  locks.  With  them  storage 
reservoirs  are  a  necessity.  The  river  has  another  peculiarity  which 
aggravates  the  difficulty  of  its  regulation,  especially  if  a  sea  level 
solution  be  contemplated.  At  Bohio,  some  twenty-seven  miles  above 
the  mouth  by  the  course  of  the  stream,  the  water  surface  at  the  ex- 
treme low  stage  is  only  about  a  foot  above  the  level  of  mean  tide 
on  the  Atlantic  coast,  where  the  tidal  oscillation  is  about  a  foot  and 
a  half.  Small  as  this  variation  is,  it  causes  at  such  times  a  three- 
inch  tide  at  Bohio.  But  the  most  important  eff'ect  of  the  defi- 
cient slope  of  the  bed  below  that  point  is  to  cause  a  piling  up  of 
the  water  in  times  of  flood,  resulting  in  a  maximum  rise  of  some 
forty  feet,  which  exceeds  that  at  any  other  point  of  its  entire  course 
and  considerably  aggravates  the  problem  of  regulation  unless  (as 
has  been  done)  the  dam  site  be  chosen  lower  on  the  stream. 

The  annual  flow  of  the  Chagres  and  its  distribution  throughout 


Present  Status  of  the  Panama  Project 


15 


the  different  months  have  important  hearings  upon  the  canal  prob- 
lem, and  they  are  now  well  understood.  Daily  measurements  for 
seventeen  years  (fourteen  by  French  and  three  by  American  en- 
gineers) have  been  made  at  Bohio,  where  the  drainage  of  about 
700  square  miles  passes  the  station.  The  average  monthly  volume 
during  this  period  is  4,587  cubic  feet  per  second,  distributed  in  the 
different  months  in  the  following  percentages  of  total  annual  flow. 
For  comparison  with  streams  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  United 
States,  similar  estimates  are  quoted  from  "Water  Power,"  by  J.  P. 
Frizell,  third  edition,  published  in  1906.  In  the  Chagres,  although 
rainfall  is  the  primary  cause,  ground  water  has  much  to  do  with 
the  progressive  changes  in  volume  from  month  to  month,  as  will 
appear  below : 

Percentage  of  Annual  Flow  (53,0/  f  Feet-Seconds). 


The  Northeast- 

Chagres  em   U.  S. 

January     7.0  10 

February    2.7  14 

March     1.8  20 

April     2.6  15 

May    7-2  10 

June    7-1  4 


The 
Chagres. 

July     9.6 

August     10.7 

September  10.5 

October    12.3 

November     15.2 

December    13.3 


Northeast- 
ern  U.  S. 


The  sedimentary  matter  carried  by  the  Chagres  varies  consid- 
erably, being  of  little  importance  at  low  stages,  but  increasmg  in 
freshets  and  floods.  The  material  is  so  fine  that  no  delta  has 
been  formed  at  the  mouth,  but  it  cannot  be  ignored  in  a  project  for 
the  canal.  Sand  bars  exist,  especially  in  the  upper  river,  where 
the  frequent  variations  in  discharge  and  the  rapid  slope  of  the  bed 
produce  a  very  unusual  ]:)hcnomenon — a  complete  sorting  of  the 
material,  some  bars  consisting  of  fine  sand,  others  of  large  pebbles, 
and  others  of  rocks  as  large  as  one's  fist.  The  latter  probabh'  move 
only  in  the  great  floods  when  the  absorption  of  the  fall  existing  in 
the  numerous  rapids  gives  a  general  quasi-uniform  slope  to  the 
water  surface  capable  of  causing  extraordinary  velocities. 

It  is  manifest  that  such  a  river  demands  the  closest  study  in 
order  to  accommodate  the  canal  in  the  best  possible  way  to  its 
vagaries.  This  it  has  received  for  many  vears  from  the  engineers 
of  the  French  administration,  and  researches  are  actively  continued 


i6  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

at  the  present  time.  All  recent  results  confirm  the  older  conclusions. 
One  of  them  of  a  general  character  is  important  as  bearing  on  the 
work  of  construction.  Both  the  measured  monthly  discharges  and 
the  recorded  frequency  and  heights  of  the  freshets  concur  in  indi- 
cating that  alternate  epochs  of  large  discharge  and  of  small  dis- 
charge succeed  each  other  at  considerable  intervals,  and  that  one 
of  the  latter  is  now  and  has  been  passing  for  some  ten  or  eleven 
years.  The  last  maximum  epoch,  the  first  since  the  construction 
of  the  Panama  Railroad,  occurred  during  and  probably  just  before 
the  operations  of  the  de  Lesseps  Company  (1881-88)  ;  and  it  should 
occasion  no  surprise  if  its  successor  should  soon  make  its  ap- 
pearance. 

One  most  fortunate  event  occurred  in  last  December  in  the 
form  of  an  exceptionally  large  flood,  the  first  since  1893.  It  had 
been  eagerly  awaited  for  long  years  by  the  engineers  of  the  canal ; 
because  the  standard  flood,  upon  which  the  hydraulic  problem  of 
regulation  had  been  solved,  occurred  in  1879,  before  systematic 
gauging  had  begun,  and  its  estimated  volume  had  been  based  upon 
the  known  maximum  heights  attained  at  a  few  points,  and  upon 
the  study  of  smaller  floods  measured  subsequently.  Verification  of 
the  estimates  as  to  volume  and  duration  was  earnestly  desired. 
The  opportunity  was  afforded  by  the  records  secured  by  Mr. 
Arango  during  the  flood  of  1906.  The  level  attained  at  Gamboa 
was  only  one  foot,  and  at  Bohio  only  seven-tenths  foot  below  the 
standard  flood,  and  the  duration  of  the  dangerous  period  was  several 
hours  less  than  had  been  assumed  for  1879.  The  maximum  volume 
fell  below  the  estimated  standard  by  only  about  2,600  feet-seconds 
at  Gamboa  and  4,700  at  Bohio.  The  previsions  of  the  engineers, 
which  had  been  claimed  by  some  to  be  excessive,  were  thus  amply^ 
justified. 

This  recent  flood  largely  exceeded  any  other  which  has  occurred 
in  the  past  half  century,  except  that  of  1879.  The  rainfall  at  its 
height,  following  two  weeks  of  heavy  downpours,  registered  about 
four  inches  in  twentv-four  hours.  About  fifteen  miles  of  the  main 
line  of  the  Panama  Railroad  were  submerged  from  two  to  ten  feet, 
the  water  standing  on  the  track  at  Matachin  five  feet  deep;  two 
small  bridges  were  carried  away  and  other  damages  were  reported. 
The  material  losses  in  1879,  enhanced  at  Colon  by  a  destructive 
tempest  from  the  north,  were  much  larger. 


Present  Status  of  the  Panama  Project  '        17 

Another  feature  of  this  interesting  river  has  been  developed  by 
researches  covering  about  nine  years,  six  under  French  and  three 
under  American  direction,  and  both  are  perfectly  in  accord.  They 
were  designed  to  check  the  conclusions  based  on  geologic  examina- 
tion that  no  serious  percolations  are  to  be  apprehended  from  the 
artificial  lakes  to  be  created  for  the  regulation  of  the  Chagres.  The 
climate  of  the  Isthmus,  where  frost  is  unknown  and  where  the  regu- 
lar succession  of  wet  and  dry  months  facilitates  the  study  of  rain- 
fall and  outflow,  has  been  of  great  assistance.  The  result  demon- 
strates that  the  river  traversing  a  densely-wooded  region  receives 
large  contributions  from  ground  water,  in  fact  fully  one-third  of 
the  annual  rainfall,  and  hence  that  no  important  subterranean  out- 
lets can  exist  for  the  escape  of  the  canal  reserves.  This  ground 
water  flow  amounts  to  little  or  nothing  in  May,  at  the  end  of  the 
dry  season,  but  then  gradually  and  uniformly  increases  until  a  maxi- 
mum is  reached  in  November,  after  which  the  rains  soon  begin  to 
diminish,  and  in  February,  March  and  April  the  stream  is  fed  almost 
wholly  by  ground  water.  The  subterranean  flow  is  thus  regulated 
by  the  successive  filling  and  emptying  of  a  great  reservoir  formed 
by  the  soil,  which  has  little  or  no  outlet  but  the  bed  of  the  stream. 
Space  is  lacking  here  for  the  details  of  these  researches,  but  the 
practical  conclusions  admit  of  no  doubt. 

The  climate  of  the  Isthmus  is  another  element  which  cannot  be 
ignored  in  considering  the  problems  of  the  canal.  The  temperature 
from  month  to  month  hardly  varies  throughout  the  year,  the  annual 
mean  in  the  shade  being  about  80°  F.  The  daily  range  in  the 
interior  in  the  dry  months  dififcrs  but  little  from  73°  F.  at  6  a.  m.  to 
89°  F.  at  I  p.  m. ;  and  in  the  rainy  season  from  75°  F.  at  6  a.  m. 
to  86°  F.  at  noon.  On  the  Pacific  coast  extremes  occur  a  little 
later,  and  the  range  is  some  3°  less.  The  mercury  when  directly 
exposed  to  the  sun's  rays  rises,  of  course,  much  higher;  at  Empire 
the  records  show  an  average  of  about  106°  F.  in  the  months  when 
the  sun  is  far  to  the  southward,  and  122°  F.,  or  even  more,  for  the 
months  when  it  is  more  nearly  overhead  at  noon.  Humidity  is 
always  excessive,  ranging  between  about  0.80  in  the  dry  months 
to  about  0.87  in  the  rainy.  The  uniformity  of  barometric  readings 
is  even  more  remarkable.  During  five  continuous  years  at  Alha- 
juela  the  extreme  variation  was  only  0.44  inch ;  and  at  Ancon  in 
1906  it  was  only  0.28  inch.     Uniformity  of  high  temperature  and 


i8  The  .hiiials  of  the  /imcrican  .Icadoiiy 

excessive  humidity  are  the  governing  characteristics  of  the  atmos- 
phere, and  this,  with  persons  of  northern  birth,  produces  lassitude 
and  need  of  occasional  change ;  but  on  the  other  hand  the  absence 
of  frost  will  greatly  assist  the  making  of  concrete  for  locks,  and 
their  practical  operation  in  the  passage  of  ships. 

The  winds  of  the  Isthmus  are  usually  gentle,  ranging  from  five 
to  eight  miles  per  hour  on  the  Caribbean  coast  and  about  the  same 
on  the  Bay  of  Panama.  There  is  a  noteworthy  absence  of  the  hur- 
ricanes so  common  in  the  West  Indies,  which  here  are  represented 
only  by  what  are  called  "northers'"  at  Colon,  occurring  at  rare 
intervals,  but  dangerous  at  such  times  to  shipping  lying  at  the 
piers.  In  the  interior  very  little  annoyance  from  winds  will  be 
experienced  by  vessels  in  transit. 

Rainfall  here  is  more  subject  to  known  laws  than  in  temperate 
regions,  being  regulated  by  the  annual  movement  of  the  sun  in 
declination  carrying  with  it  the  axis  of  ascending  moist  air  to  be 
condensed  by  cold  in  the  upper  regions  and  precipitated  in  the  form 
of  a  rain  belt  oscillating  north  and  south  following  the  sun.  In 
the  Canal  Zone,  lying  in  latitude  9°  north,  the  sun  is  at  the  zenith 
on  April  13,  moving  northward,  and  again  on  August  29,  returning 
southward.  This  naturally  divides  the  year  into  dry  and  rainy  sea- 
sons, sharply  defined.  The  former  extends  approximately  from 
the  middle  of  January  to  the  middle  of  April,  the  rain  belt  being 
then  to  the  south.  At  this  time  in  the  interior,  where  the  heaviest 
work  is  required,  the  monthly  downfall  averages  about  one  inch, 
falling  in  about  seven  days.  The  rainy  season  covers  the  rest  of  the 
year,  with  a  monthly  downfall  averaging  about  twelve  inches  fall- 
ing in  about  twenty-one  days,  but  on  many  of  these  days  the  show- 
ers are  light.  Near  the  Atlantic  coast  the  annual  precipitation  is 
about  140  inches,  while  near  the  Pacific  it  is  only  about  sixty  inches. 
In  the  interior  it  ranges  from  place  to  place  between  these  limits. 
Experience  has  shown  that  this  heavy  downfall  practically  reduces 
excavation  output  in  the  rainy  season  not  far  from  twenty-five  per 
cent,  largely  by  reason  of  increased  difficulty  in  shifting  track  and 
transporting  material  to  the  dumps. 

The  health  conditions  on  the  Isthmus  are  no  longer  what  they 
were  during  the  construction  of  the  Panama  Railroad  and  the  tenta- 
tive operations  of  the  de  Lesseps  company.  Colonel  Gorgas,  by 
practically  applying  modern  sanitary  methods,  has  brought  about  a 


Present  Status  of  the  Panama  Project  19 

marvelous  improvement,  and  residence  in  the  Zone  is  now  hardly 
more  dangerous  than  in  many  localities  in  the  United  States.  For- 
merly the  yellow  fever  caused  many  deaths,  although  in  nowise 
endemic,  as  was  proved  by  prolonged  disappearances.  As  in  our 
southern  states,  it  took  the  form  of  epidemics  caused  by  importa- 
tions. The  last  one  occurred  in  1905,  but  was  soon  suppressed,  no 
case  appearing  after  May,  1906.  Out  of  a  total  population  of  108.- 
206  persons  in  the  Zone  and  the  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon  in 
September,  1907,  only  297  deaths  from  all  causes  occurred,  showing 
an  annual  average  per  1,000  of  32.93.  For  the  employees  of  the 
canal  and  railroad  the  corresponding  figures  in  this  month  were 
41,062,  and  98,  and  28.63.  Under  the  efificient  administration  of 
Colonel  Gorgas  the  dreaded  tropical  diseases  of  the  Isthmus  have 
lost  their  terrors. 

Project  Adopted  for  the  Waterivay. 

It  is  known  to  every  one  that  for  long  years  a  struggle  was  in 
progress  in  the  United  States,  first  as  to  the  route  and  later  as  to 
the  type  of  construction.  Both  questions  have  been  happily  settled, 
and  it  is  only  needful  at  the  present  time  to  consider  the  project 
formallv  adopted  by  the  government. 

The  line  followed  by  the  canal  measures  about  40  miles  between 
shore  lines,  and  49.35  miles  between  41-foot  contours  in  the  Bay 
of  Limon  and  the  Bay  of  Panama.  Both  ports  have  met  the  de- 
mands of  commerce  since  the  earliest  dates,  and  no  engineering 
difficulty  will  be  experienced  in  adapting  them  to  the  largest  class 
of  modern  shipping.  It  is  well  to  remember  in  what  follows  that 
the  general  direction  of  the  route  is  from  northwest  to  southeast, 
Panama  lying  some  twenty  miles  to  the  eastw^ard   from  Colon. 

At  Gatun,  three  miles  from  the  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Limon, 
the  canal  reaches  the  Chagres  River.  Here  will  be  constructed  three 
duplicate  locks,  with  lifts  of  29  feet,  and  a  dam  to  create  a  lake 
having  165  square  miles  of  surface  and  rising  85  feet  above  mean 
tide  level  (which  is  the  same  in  both  Limon  and  Panama  Bays). 
This  great  lake  forms  the  summit  level  of  the  canal.  Its  depth  on 
the  ship  route  will  be  never  less  than  42  feet,  and  for  sixteen  miles 
its  navigable  width  will  generally  exceed  half  a  mile.  In  the  next 
nine  miles  the  width  gradually  diminishes  to  800  feet,  500  feet,  and 
300  feet ;  and  at  Las  Cascades,  where  for  only  seven  miles  the  route 


20  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

becomes  properly  speaking  a  canal,  the  depth  at  the  normal  stage 
is  maintained  at  45  feet  and  the  width  at  bottom  at  200  feet.  At 
Pedro  Miguel,  thirty-two  miles  from  Gatun,  a  descent  of  30  feet 
is  made  to  a  second  lake  (Sosa)  by  one  duplicate  lock.  This  lake, 
raised  55  feet  above  mean  tide,  is  formed  by  two  principal  dams, 
of  which  the  most  important  one  is  situated  near  La  Boca,  where 
are  also  two  duplicate  locks  to  conduct  to  the  Pacific.  The  distance 
across  the  lake  is  five  miles,  making  the  total  distance  between  ocean 
shore  lines  only  forty  miles,  of  which  more  than  three-quarters  lie 
in  navigable  lakes. 

As  intimated  above,  six  locks  are  required,  three  at  Gatun  to 
reach  the  great  lake ;  one  at  Pedro  Miguel,  to  descend  to  Lake  Sosa ; 
and  two  at  La  Boca  to  reach  Panama  Bay.  Their  dimensions,  re- 
quired by  the  law  of  Congress  to  accommodate  vessels  "of  the  larg- 
est tonnage  and  the  greatest  draft  now  in  use,  and  such  as  may  be 
reasonably  anticipated,"  are,  subject  to  revision,  to  be  1,000  feet 
long,  100  feet  wide,  and  40  feet  deep.  These  dimensions  under  the 
law  much  exceed  what  was  previously  considered  to  be  necessary 
to  meet  the  probable  needs  of  commerce  for  at  least  half  a  century. 
Thus  the  Comite  Technique  proposed  738  feet,  82  feet,  and  32.8 
feet ;  and  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  of  1899-01  recommended 
740  feet,  84  feet  and  35  feet.  Numerous  borings  and  repeated  in- 
vestigations have  demonstrated  that  all  of  the  locks,  of  the  dimen- 
sions now  proposed,  will  rest  upon  rock  of  such  character  that  it 
will  furnish  a  safe  and  stable  foundation,  and  there  is  no  reason  to 
apprehend  difficulties  or  dangers  in  the  passage  of  shipping.  Prac- 
tical experience  with  large  locks,  large  ships,  and  an  immense 
traffic  on  our  great  St.  Mary's  waterway,  which  carries  annually, 
although  blocked  by  ice  in  the  winter,  more  tonnage  than  all  four 
of  the  other  most  important  ship  canals  of  the  world  taken  together, 
is  conclusive  as  to  safety  of  passage.  With  substantial  piers  of  ap- 
proach, and  suitable  guard  gates,  and  by  moving  the  vessels  by 
stationary  power  other  than  their  own,  dangers  to  locks  and  to 
shipping  in  transit  are  as  nothing  compared  to  those  frequently 
encountered  by  the  latter  on  the  ocean. 

Gross  misrepresentation,  largely  front  interested  parties  and 
enemies  of  the  canal,  has  been  rife  in  the  public  press  concerning 
the  dam  at  Gatun.  This  construction  is  neither  more  nor  less  than 
a  large  engineering  work  involving  no  problems  which  may  not  be 


Present  Status  of  the  Panama  Project  21 

solved  by  ordinary  methods  of  procedure.  The  cross  section  has 
been  sHghtly  changed,  and  the  upstream  slope  is  to  be  more  gradual 
than  originally  proposed.  It  is  a  technical  matter  which  the  pubHc 
may  safely  leave  to  the  engineers  in  charge.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  the  Pacific  dams,  which  are  of  much  smaller  dimensions 
than  the  one  at  Gatun. 

It  remains  to  consider  how  the  vagaries  of  the  Chagres  and 
the  question  of  water  supply  in  the  dry  season  are  treated  in  the 
adopted  project.  In  this  connection  an  important  and  gratifying 
discovery  has  been  made  since  the  plan  was  adopted.  The  earlier 
projects  had  contemplated  a  dam  on  the  river  at  Bohio,  and  detailed 
contoured  surveys  below  that  point  were  lacking.  When  the  Board 
of  Consulting  Engineers  decided  upon  a  lower  location  there  was 
no  time  to  make  such  surveys  before  adjournment.  Consequently 
the  estimate  of  the  area  to  be  submerged  by  the  dam  at  Gatun  at 
normal  lake  level  had  to  be  formed  from  the  best  maps  available ; 
and  it  was  taken  at  no  square  miles,  care  being  given  to  avoid  any 
over-valuation,  since  such  would  tend  to  exaggerate  the  capacity  of 
the  lake  for  absorbing  the  floods  and  for  storing  the  reserves.  A 
recent  contoured  survey  has  shown  the  true  area  at  85  feet  eleva- 
tion, to  be  165  square  miles;  and  it  is  not  without  interest  to  see 
how  the  change  aiTects  the  anticipations  of  the  Board. 

Beside  affording  a  wide  and  unobstructed  route  for  shipping 
in  transit,  the  lake  will  have  two  important  duties:  to  absorb  in 
part  the  excess  of  volume  in  floods,  and  to  store  the  reserves  for 
the  three  months  of  deficient  river  flow.  The  first  requirement  was 
estimated  at  a  rise  of  two  feet  above  normal  lake  level ;  and  the 
second  w^as  fixed  at  a  subsidence  of  three  feet,  in  order  to  maintain 
a  navigable  channel  without  excessive  height  in  lock  walls  and  lock 
gates,  or  unnecessary  excavation  in  shallow  parts  of  the  lake.  The 
total  oscillation  from  the  normal  level  of  85  feet  above  tide  was  thus 
restricted  to  5  feet.  The  corresponding  figure  for  the  lake  projected 
above  Bohio  was,  in  the  project  of  the  Comite  Technique.  5.7  feet, 
and  in  that  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  of  1809-01,  10.4  feet. 
Naturally  the  less  the  oscillation  the  simpler  will  be  the  problems 
at  the  locks.  The  larger  lake  is  a  great  advantage,  permitting  any 
available  funds  to  be  devoted  to  widening  rather  than  to  deepen- 
ing the  navigable  channels.    This  matter  will  bear  a  little  study. 

The  rise  in  floods  will  depend  upon  the  area  of  the  lake  and 


22  The  Annals  of  live  American  Academy 

the  permissible  rate  of  outflow.  Since  the  latter  is  independent  of 
the  area  of  the  lake,  and  the  estimated  area  is  now  known  to  be 
increased  50  per  cent,  the  computed  oscillation  for  flood  regulation 
is  reduced  to  a  little  over  one  foot  instead  of  two,  the  rate  of  outflow 
remaining  unchanged.  This  gain,  however,  is  apparent  rather  than 
real  since  the  contemplated  encroachment,  at  the  end  of  the  rainy 
season,  of  one  foot  on  the  two  feet,  with  a  view  to  increase  the 
volume  available  for  low  water  reserves,  would  no  longer  be  judi- 
cious, especially  as  the  largest  floods  always  occur  in  November  and 
December. 

The  correction  to  be  made  for  storage  oscillation  is  not  so 
simple.  Three  elements  are  affected :  surface  area,  loss  by  evapora- 
tion and  loss  by  infiltration.  The  first  of  these  losses  is  dependent 
not  only  on  lake  area  but  also  on  the  rate  of  evaporation  ;  and  both 
area  and  rate  have  been  affected  by  new  measurements  since  the 
report  of  the  Board  was  submitted.  Since  no  local  observations  as 
to  evaporation  from  exposed  water  surfaces  were  then  available,  the 
rate  assumed  (0.24  inch  per  twenty-four  hours)  was  intentionally 
liberal.  This  estimation  was  based  on  records  kept  on  Lake  Nicara- 
gua, with  allowance  for  the  "uncertain  data  as  to  lake  area  below 
Bohio."  Actual  measurements  have  recently  been  made  by  Mr. 
Arango  on  a  reservoir  at  Bas  Obispo,  giving  average  monthly  losses 
per  tw^enty-four  hours  since  December  i,  1906,  of  0.135  inch, 
0.167  inch,  0.181  inch,  0.212  inch,  0.216  inch,  0.151  inch,  0.104 
inch,  0.102  inch,  0.116  inch,  0.112  inch,  0.095  '"ch,  and  0.120  inch. 
The  true  local  values  per  day  are  thus  0.20  inch  in  the  three  deficient 
months,  0.12  inch  in  the  rainy  months,  and  0.14  inch  annually. 
These  figures  are  consistent  with  the  Lake  Nicaragua  observa- 
tions (0.19  inch  annually),  since  the  annual  rainfall  in  the  basin  of 
that  lake  is  about  65  inches,  to  compare  with  about  90  inches  at 
Bas  Obispo;  and  the  humidity  there  should  be  somewhat  less  and 
the  evaporation  somewhat  larger.  The  Board's  estimate  of  the  loss 
by  evaporation  in  the  three  deficient  months  was  measured  by  a 
flow  during  that  period  of  710  cubic  feet  per  second.  By  the  cor- 
rection of  the  rate  this  is  reduced  to  592  feet-seconds  for  a  lake  of 
no  square  miles,  which  is  raised  by  the  increase  in  area  to  888  feet- 
seconds. 

Any  estimate  of  loss  by  infiltration  must  at  best  be  based  on 
suppositions.     It  has  been  stated  above  that  the  Chagres  is  largely 


^'     OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

CF 

^rS^SXTft'inuius  of  the  Faiiama  1  roject  23 

fed  by  ground  water  at  all  seasons,  except  at  the  very  end  of  the 
three  dry  months ;  a  fact  which  is  inconsistent  with  serious  loss 
by  seepage  or  escape  by  subterranean  flow.  The  Board's  estimate  is 
represented  by  a  flow  of  yy  feet-seconds.  Since  such  losses  in 
this  valley  must  be  restricted  to  a  few  points  of  escape,  it  is  con- 
servative to  assume  that  adding  fifty  per  cent  to  the  lake  surface 
will  not  more  than  double  this  loss,  raising  it  to  154  feet-seconds. 
The  aggregate  of  the  two  losses  is  thus  raised  front  787  feet- 
seconds  to  1,042  feet-seconds,  an  increase  of  about  2;^  per  cent. 
To  this  must  be  added  the  Board's  estimates  for  leakage  at  gates, 
250  feet-seconds ;  for  lighting,  power,  etc.,  200  feet-seconds ;  and, 
finally,  for  contingencies,  200  feet-seconds,  making  a  grand  total 
of  1,692  feet-seconds  to  cover  all  losses  in  the  dry  season  other 
than  those  for  lockage.  This  total  deducted  from  that  contributed 
by  the  stream  itself  in  the  three  deficient  months,  joined  to  the 
volume  three  feet  deep  stored  in  the  lake  below  elevation  85,  will 
represent  the  volume  available  for  passing  vessels  through  the 
locks. 

The  iiiiiiiiniiiii  flow  of  the  stream  at  Gatun  during  the  ninety 
days  of  deficient  flow  was  estimated  by  the  Board  at  1,250  feet- 
seconds  (the  average  being  2,360)  ;  this  was  based  on  ample  data 
available  at  Bohio,  and  upon  over  one  hundred  gaugings  of  the 
Isthmian  Canal  Commission  of  1899-01.  on  the  tributaries  below 
that  point,  including  an  exceptionally  dry  year.  Ignoring  the  insig- 
nificant reduction  of  lake  surface  produced  by  a  subsidence  of  3 
feet,  the  storage  volume  above  elevation  82  feet  is  represented  by 
13,800  million  cubic  feet  instead  of  9,198  million  figured  upon  the 
old  area.  Adding  these  two  sources  of  supply  and  deducting  the 
losses  (1,692  feet-seconds)  indicated  above,  there  will  remain  avail- 
able for  lockage  a  revised  volume  of  10.360  million  cubic  feet.  How 
many  transits  will  this  permit  in  the  ninety  days  of  deficient  flow? 

The  following  lockage  estimates  are  based  on  the  dimensions 
now  proposed,  namely,  with  a  depth  of  40  feet,  a  usable  length  of 
1,000  feet  and  a  width  of  100  feet,  both  of  the  latter  dimensions 
exceeding  those  favored  by  the  members  advocating  a  lock  canal, 
who  in  the  text  of  their  report  used  smaller  figures  (40  x  900  x  05 
feet).  To  save  needless  waste  of  water,  and  what  is  even  more 
important,  needless  time  in  loekagc,  interior  gates  were  admitted 
on  the  Pacific  slope,  aflfording  a  usable  length  of  550  feet,  but  not 


24  The  Annals  of  the  Aincrican  Academy 

on  the  Atlantic  slope,  by  reason  of  the  three  locks  in  flight;  and  in 
traffic  computations  it  was  assumed  that  eight-tenths  of  the  vessels 
would  use  the  smaller  chambers.  Upon  these  suppositions  the  vol- 
ume now  to  be  expended  for  one  daily  transit  of  the  canal  would 
be,  if  using  only  the  large  chambers,  71.2  feet-seconds,  and  if  using 
both  on  the  Pacific  slope  only,  58.2  feet-seconds.  Making  the  com- 
putation with  these  values,  and  comparing  the  results  with  the  old 
figures,  the  gain  resulting  from  the  new  data  over  that  available  to 
the  Board  is,  using  only  the  large  chambers,  18.7  daily  transits  to 
compare  with  13.7;  and  using  both  chambers  as  indicated  above, 
22.9,  as  compared  wath  17. i.  The  project  is  thus  rendered  more 
attractive  than  was  supposed  before  the  discovery  that  a  larger 
lake  area  is  available;  but  if  desired  the  showing  may  be  still 
further  improved  by  introducing  the  system  of  intermediate  gates 
in  the  triple  flight  of  locks  at  Gatun,  placing  the  small  chambers 
at  the  down-stream  ends  of  the  upper  and  middle  locks  and  at  the 
up-stream  end  of  the  lower  lock.  By  proper  operation  of  the 
intermediate  gate  in  the  middle  lock  this  location  virtually  reduces 
the  flight  of  three  locks  to  a  single  lock  separated  from  a  flight  of 
two  by  a  pseudo-canal  about  465  feet  long.  The  manoeuvres  at  a 
transit  will  be  the  following: 

Suppose  the  last  ship  had  ascended  by  the  large  chambers,  leav- 
ing them  all  full ;  a  ship  descending  by  the  small  chambers  after 
moving  into  the  middle  lock  wnll  close  the  middle  gate  behind  it 
before  descending  into  the  lower  lock,  thus  leaving  the  little  pseudo- 
canal  full.  It  will  remain  full,  no  matter  how  many  ascents  and 
descents  be  made  by  the  small  chambers,  provided  only  that  the 
gates  be  manipulated  properly.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  last 
ship  using  the  large  chambers  had  descended,  leaving  them  all 
empty,  the  first  ship  to  make  use  of  the  small  chambers  will  draw 
from  the  summit  level  a  full  large  chamber  lockage  with  which  not 
only  to  pass  but  also  to  permanently  fill  the  pseudo-canal  about  465 
feet  long.  This  small  extra  expenditure  occurring  but  rarely,  need 
not  be  considered  in  the  computations,  being  much  more  than  cov- 
ered by  the  allowance  of  200  feet-seconds  for  contingencies.  Adopt- 
ing this  system  at  Gatun  as  w^ell  as  upon  the  Pacific  slope,  the 
lockage  volume  for  one  daily  transit  of  the  canal,  using  small  and 
large  chambers  in  the  ratio  of  eight  to  two.  will  be  46.3,  to  compare 
with   58.2   feet-seconds,  when   only   the   Pacific   slope  is   equipped 


Present  Status  of  the  Panama  Project  25 

with  intermediate  gates.  This  will  further  increase  the  number  of 
daily  transit  during  the  dry  season  to  28.7,  to  compare  with  22.9 
when  large  chambers  only  are  used  in  the  Gatun  flight,  and  to  com- 
pare with  18.7  without  small  chambers  on  either  slope. 

But  it  nmst  be  noted  that  these  figures  by  no  means  limit  the 
possible  traffic.  It  will  be  easy  when  more  is  demanded  to  store 
from  surplus  flow  in  the  rainy  season  a  large  reserve  in  an  upper 
lake  formed  by  the  dam  projected  at  Alhajuela  (capacity  11,300 
million  cubic  feet,  estimated  cost  $2,400,000),  supplemented,  if 
needful,  by  others  on  the  Trinidad  and  Gatuncillo.  This  available 
volume  is  represented  by  the  iniiiiiiiuin  annual  flow  of  the  Chagres 
at  Gatun,  5,730  feet-seconds  as  adopted  by  the  Board  upon  trust- 
worthy records  covering  fourteen  years,  the  corresponding  average 
flow  being  8,173  feet-seconds.  In  making  the  computation,  losses 
by  evaporation  and  infiltration  in  the  upper  lake  must  be  included, 
its  area  being  13.5  square  miles.  The  recently  measured  rate  of 
annual  loss  by  evaporation  (0.14  inch  per  twenty- four  hours)  is 
applied  to  both  lakes ;  the  loss  by  infiltration  in  the  upper  is  placed 
at  10  feet-seconds,  proportioned  to  its  area ;  the  other  figures  above 
remain  unchanged.  Such  a  computation  will  show  that  the  water 
supply  is  ample  to  permit  annually  59.3  daily  lockages,  using  the 
large  chambers  only;  72."/  using  the  smaller  as  proposed  on  the 
Pacific  slope;  or  91.2  using  them  on  both  slopes.  These  figures 
demonstrate  that  the  Chagres  will  meet  all  possible  needs  of  the 
canal,  and  that  the  only  limit  to  traffic  is  fixed  by  mechanical  delays 
in  passing  ships.  The  Board  with  intermediate  gates  on  the  Pacific 
slope  figured  on  twenty-six  daily  transits,  corresponding  to  an 
annual  traffic  of  about  forty  million  tons,  but  this  might  be  increased 
at  any  time  by  adding  new  locks. 

In  fine,  the  adopted  project  offers  easy  lake  navigation  for 
about  three-quarters  of  the  entire  distance  between  the  oceans,  and 
meets  all  the  prospective  needs  of  commerce.  The  delays  in 
passage  inherent  to  a  restricted  route  will  be  limited  to  the  deep 
cut  at  the  Culebra,  only  about  seven  miles  in  length,  and  if  desired 
the  entire  transit  can  be  made  in  a  single  day  without  encroaching 
on  the  hours  of  darkness.  Such  advantages  as  compared  with  the 
conditions  of  any  economically  practicable  route  at  sea  level  are 
cheaply  purchased  by  the  passage  of  a  few  modern  locks. 


26  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

Present  Organisation  on  the  Isthmus. 
The  spring  of  1907  may  properly  be  regarded  as  the  end  of  the 
preparatory  period,  inasmuch  as  the  technical  plan  of  the  canal  or 
even  whether  it  should  be  of  sea  level  or  lock  type,  had  only  been 
decided  by  Congress  and  approved  by  the  President  in  the  preceding 
June.     At  this  date   the   status   of  the   work  was  highly  satisfac- 
tory.    The  chief  engineer,   Mr.  John  F.   Stevens,  had  created  an 
efficient  organization,  comprising  a  working  force  on  the  canal  and 
railroad  of  about  25,000  men,  well  lodged  and  fed.  with  a  good 
supply  of  modern  plant;   Colonel   Gorgas  had   accomplished  won- 
ders in  the  sanitation  of  the  Isthmus ;  and  cordial  relations  had  long 
been  established  with  the  government  of  the  republic.     The  time 
had  come  when  the   work  of  construction  could  be  pushed  judi- 
ciously.    The  President  considered  that  under  these  conditions  the 
Commission  should  move  its  headquarters  to  the  Canal  Zone,  and 
as  both  Air.  Shouts  and  J\lr  Stevens  had  tendered  their  resignations 
he  radically  reorganized  this  Commission.     When  Senator  Spooner 
drafted  the  bill  which  ultimately  became  the  law  authorizing  the 
purchase  of  the  concessions  and  property  of  the  New  Canal  Com- 
pany, he  provided  that  the  work  should  be  executed  under  the  War 
Department,  the  intention  being  that  the  immediate  direction  should 
be  vested  in  the  Corps  of  Engineers  of  the  Army,  upon  which  such 
duties  in  this  country  usually  devolve ;  but  in  the  discussion  before 
the  Senate  this  provision  was  changed,  and  an  Isthmian  Canal  Com- 
mission of  seven  members  was  substituted.     The  present  Commis- 
sion, fourth  of  the  name,  combines  the  two  ideas.     Its  personnel  is 
thus  constituted  under  the  immediate  direction  of  the  Secretary  of 

War.  Judge  Taft : 

Lieutenant-Colonel  George  W.  Goethals.  Corps  of  Engineers, 

Chairman. 

Major  David  DuB.  Gaillard.  Corps  of  Engineers. 

Major  William  L.  Sibert,  Corps  of  Engineers. 

Rear  Admiral  H.  H.  Rousseau,  Civil  Engineer.  V.  S.  Navy. 

Hon.  Joseph  C.  S.  Blackburn. 

Colonel  William  C.  Gorgas.  Medical  Dept.  U.  S.  Army. 

Mr.  Jackson  Smith. 

Colonel  Goethals,  who  is  also  chief  engineer,  has  general 
charge  and  direction  of  construction  and  engineering.  Major  Gail- 
lard has  special  charge  of  the  department  of  excavation  and  dredg- 


Present  Status  of  the  Panama  Project  27 

ing..  Major  Sibert,  of  the  department  of  lock  and  dam  construc- 
tion, also  including  the  division  of  meteorology  and  river  hydraulics. 
Admiral  Rousseau,  of  the  department  of  municipal  engineering, 
motive  power  and  machinery,  and  building  construction.  Mr.  Black- 
burn, of  civil  administration ;  Colonel  Gorgas,  of  sanitation :  Mr. 
Smith,  of  labor,  quarters  and  subsistence.  Mr.  Joseph  Bucklin 
Bishop  is  secretary  of  the  Commission. 

Since  this  last  reorganization,  which  dates  from  April  i,  1907, 
the  detail  of  officers  of  the  Corps  of  Engineers  for  duty  on  the 
Isthmus  has  been  resumed.  On  August  i,  Major  Edgar  Jadwin 
was  assigned  to  the  department  of  excavation  and  dredging,  as 
division  engineer  of  the  Chagres  division ;  and  on  the  same  day 
Major  Chester  Harding  was  assigned  to  the  department  of  lock  and 
dam  construction,  as  division  engineer  of  the  Gatun  division.  On 
October  16  Captain  Horton  \V.  Stickle,  and  on  November  12  Cap- 
tain George  M.  Hoffman,  were  detailed  for  like  duty.  These  two 
departments,  upon  which  devolves  all  work  of  canal  construction 
proper,  are  divided  locally  into  nine  divisions  under  the  two  com- 
missioners in  charge. 

On  July  I,  by  direction  of  the  President,  the  duty  of  purchas- 
ing engineering  materials  and  supplies  for  the  Commission  was 
placed  under  the  supervision  of  the  Chief  of  Engineers  of  the  Army. 
By  his  order  Major  Harry  F.  Hodges  was  assigned  to  this  duty 
on  August  15,  and  ofificers  and  agents  of  the  department  w^ere 
directed  to  make  such  purchases,  inspections  and  shipments  in  the 
vicinity  of  their  several  offices  as  he  may  request  in  the  name  of  the 
Chief,  and  to  render  duly  authenticated  vouchers  to  him  for  pay- 
ment. Under  this  plan  the  force  at  the  Washington  office  of  the 
Commission  is  largely  reduced,  and  in  procuring  the  needed  supplies 
advantage  is  taken  of  existing  agencies  widely  distributed  over 
the  United  States.  The  system  of  accounting  is  also  simplified ; 
the  papers  now  go  direct  to  the  Auditor  of  the  War  Department, 
instead  of  passing  to  him  through  an  intermediate  auditor  of  the 
Isthmian  Canal  Commission. 

On  March  22,  1907,  a  new  code  of  civil  procedure  was  ordered 
by  the  President  to  take  effect  within  the  Zone  on  May  I.  The 
chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court  is  Dr.  F.  Mutis  Duran.  and 
the  two  associate  justices  are  Messrs.  H.  A.  Gudger  and  Lorin  C. 
Collins. 


28  Tlic  Aiuials  of  live  American  Acadony 

The  importance  of  continuing  the  French  system  of  river  and 
chmatological  records  is  appreciated.  The  work,  assigned  to  the 
supervision  of  Major  Sibert,  remains  organized  as  a  division  under 
Mr.  Ricardo  M.  Arango,  who  has  been  in  charge  since  it  was  cre- 
ated in  June,  1905.  The  fluviograph  records  with  occasional  gaug- 
ings  are  continued  at  Alhajuela,  Gamboa  and  Bohio ;  and  quite  re- 
cently measures  have  been  taken  to  determine  the  contributions  of 
the  two  important  tributaries  below  Bohio.  the  Trinidad  and  Gatun- 
cillo,  checked  by  fluviograph  records  and  gaugings  near  Gatun.  The 
deficient  slope  in  the  lower  Chagres  at  low  stages,  and  the  tidal 
changes  of  level,  although  fortunately  moderate  in  the  Caribbean 
Sea.  make  the  determination  of  discharge  at  Gatun  at  such  times  a 
delicate  one — as  has  always  been  the  case  at  Bohio,  but  to  a  much 
less  degree.  Arrangements  have  recently  been  made  to  put  the 
system  of  river  gaugings  to  practical  use  in  excavation  by  sending 
warnings,  twenty-four  hours  in  advance,  of  interruptions  to  be  ex- 
pected from  freshets  or  floods  coming  from  the  upper  river. 

Regular  observations  upon  evaporation  were  inaugurated  in 
December,  1906,  at  Bas  Obispo,  supplemented  by  wind  records  both 
as  to  velocity  and  direction.  An  old  masonry  pool  or  tank  fully 
exposed  to  sun  and  wind  was  utilized  for  this  purpose,  thus  mak- 
ing sure  that  the  results  will  not  suggest  underestimates  of  loss  in 
the  reserves  stored  in  the  prospective  lakes.  The  records  to  date 
have  been  given  above. 

Two  new  seismographs  of  latest  type  have  been  ordered  re- 
cently to  replace  the  original  French  instruments,  in  use  at  Ancon 
since  September,  1900.  One  will  be  placed  at  a  position  where  it 
will  be  exposed  as  little  as  possible  to  earth  tremors  caused  by 
blasting,  and  the  other  at  a  central  location  to  be  used  in  studying 
the  rate  and  laws  of  transmission  of  such  earth  waves. 

To  continue  the  local  rain  records,  which  in  this  district  of 
heavy  downfall  have  practical  importance  in  connection  with  cur- 
rent works  of  excavation  as  well  as  with  studies  for  river  regula- 
tion, twelve  stations  along  the  line  of  the  canal  are  now  equipped 
with  rain  gauges  of  approved  patterns. 

In  addition,  four  complete  meteorological  observatories,  pro- 
vided with  instruments  like  those  in  use  at  weather  bureau  stations 
in  the  United  States,  have  been  established  at  Naos,  Ancon,  Bas 
Obispo   and   Cristobal.      Flerc   regular   observations   are   made   of 


Present  Status  of  the  Panama  Project  29 

temperature,  barometric  pressure,  relative  humidity,  and  clouds, 
together  with  any  special  phenomena.  At  the  coast  stations  tidal 
records  and  water  temperature  are  added.  In  brief,  provisions  for 
continuing  and  extending  the  scope  of  the  elaborate  French  obser- 
vations have  received  attention. 

Potable  water  is  now  furnished  from  four  main  storage  reser- 
voirs,— the  Mount  Hope  near  Colon,  the  Rio  Grande  for  the  Pacific 
slope,  the  Camacho  and  the  Gatuncillo  for  the  interior, — together 
with  auxiliary  pumping  stations  supplied  by  them  and  by  dams  on 
the  Caribali  and  Frijoles  rivers. 

Progress  in   JVork  of  Construction. 

Between  the  transfer  of  the  property  to  the  United  States  on 
May  4,  1904,  and  April  i,  1907,  in  other  words  during  the  period 
of  the  first  two  Commissions  charged  with  works  of  construction, 
there  has  been  removed,  measured  in  place  and  at  a  cost  for  steam 
shovel  work  of  about  78  cents  per  cubic  yard : 

At  Culebra  Cut,  by  steam  shovels  :  Cubic  Yds. 

In    1904    243,472 

In    190S    • 914.254 

In    1906    2,702,991 

In   1907,  to  April    2,021,132 

Total     5,881,849 

At   Gatun,  by  steam  shovels,  beginning   October,    1906 244,495 

At  La  Boca,  by  steam  shovels,  beginning  March,   1907   3-905 

Total   steam  shovel   work    6,130,249 

At   Colon,   outside   canal   prism,   by   dredges 1,732,712 

At   La    Boca,   outside   canal   prism,   by   dredges 1,956,895 

Total    by    dredges    3.689,607 

Grand    total    excavation     9,819,856 

The  total  estimated  excavation  remaining  on  April  i,  1907,  to 
complete  the  canal,  including  both  steam  shovel  work  and  dredging, 
was: 

Cubic  Yds. 

Canal    prism 101,050,000 

Lock    sites     7,965,000 

Regulating  works   and   diversion  channel    2,150,000 

Construction   channels,   Cristobal   and   Panama    3,350,000 

Total     114,515,000 


30  77/r  .hiiials  of  the  Aiiicrtcan  Acadoiiy 

This  estimate  includes  500,000  cubic  yards  to  completely  re- 
move all  threatening"  material  at  the  old  Cucaracha  slide,  which 
caused  the  most  annoyance  in  the  days  of  the  de  Lesseps  Company. 
It  lies  on  the  east  side  of  the  cut  about  half  a  mile  from  Gold  Hill, 
and  to  the  southward  from  the  deepest  part  of  the  excavation.  In 
October,  under  the  heavy  rains,  an  earth  movement  toward  the 
cut  began  at  a  rate  of  about  fourteen  feet  per  day,  and  three  steam 
shovels  were  put  to  work  night  and  day  to  hold  it  in  check  ;  this 
soon  produced  the  desired  effect. 

On  July  I,  1907,  there  were  in  service  on  the  Isthmus  63  steam 
shovels,  of  which  3  were  of  the  45-ton  type,  28  of  the  70-ton  type 
with  2.5-yard  buckets ;  and  32  of  the  95-ton  type,  the  latter  equipped 
with  5-yard  buckets  and  capable  of  handling  a  rock  of  over  ten 
tons  in  w^eight;  thirty-seven  shovels  were  under  contract.  Their 
chief  duty  has  been  and  will  be  at  the  Culebra  division,  where  the 
distance  of  the  dumps  reduces  the  output.  Thus  in  this  month  132 
locomotives  were  at  work  there  on  over  106  miles  of  track;  and  the 
aggregate  length  of  holes  drilled  for  blasting  was  19.38  miles.  In 
September  this  length  was  20.5  miles,  and  107  tons  of  explosives 
were  used.  On  September  17,  when  39  shovels  were  at  work,  the 
daily  average  (eight  hours)  was  875  cubic  yards.  On  the  same  day 
four  shovels  at  the  Gatun  lock  site  average  1,305  cubic  yards  each. 
These  were  record  outputs.  A  single  shovel  in  eight  hours  has 
registered  at  Bas  Obispo  1,954  yards;  at  Culebra,  2.188  yards,  and 
at  Pedro  Miguel,  3,040  yards.     This  was  in  November. 

The  question  of  labor  has  presented  a  different  phase  since 
the  American  occupation.  Under  the  old  sanitary  conditions  ex- 
perience demonstrated  that  dependence  nmst  be  ])laced  upon  the 
negroes  of  the  West  Indies,  as  it  appeared  that  they  alone  could 
perform  hard  labor  safely  under  the  tropical  sun.  Their  labor  was 
of  a  very  inferior  character,  and  under  the  new  sanitary  conditions 
it  has  been  found  that  Spanish,  Italian  and  Greek  laborers  are 
not  onlv  much  superior  but  also  show  a  less  death  rate.  Over  5,000 
of  them  were  emploved  in  Xovember.  The  negroes  suft'er  much 
from  pneumonia,  from  which  the  whites  are  exempt,  or  nearly  so. 
At  the  end  of  October  25,915  men  were  working  on  the  canal  and 
6,139  on  the  Panama  Railroad,  the  aggregate  rolls  showing  a  much 
larger  number.  The  idea  of  comj^leting  the  work  by  contract, 
although  seriously  entertained  prior  to  the  appointment  of  the 
present  Commission,  seems  now  to  be  definitely  abandoned. 


Present  Status  of  the  Panama  Project  31 

Work  on  the  canal  is  divided  locally  between  two  divisions, 
forming  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  approaches,  the  Culebra  division 
including-  the  cut  through  the  continental  divide,  the  Chagres 
division  extending  thence  to  deep  water  in  Gatun  Lake,  and  the 
Gatun  division  including  the  dam  and  locks.  Each  will  be  con- 
sidered in  turn. 

At  both  of  the  ocean  approaches  considerable  dredging  will  be 
necessary.  The  Colon  division  extends  from  the  Gatun  locks  to 
Mindi  and  thence  to  deep  water  in  the  Caribbean  Sea;  here  some 
21,000.000  cubic  yards  are  to  be  removed,  of  which  about  3.7 
millions  are  rock.  One  16-inch  suction  dredge,  two  5-yard  dipper 
dredges,  and  one  French  ladder  dredge  are  at  work,  and  a  second 
French  ladder  dredge  is  undergoing  repairs  for  this  purpose. 
They  are  served  by  four  French  self-propelling  hopper  barges, 
known  as  "Clapets,"  and  one  tug,  together  with  six  new  steel  hop- 
per barges  requiring  to  be  towed  by  the  others. 

The  La  Boca  division  extends  from  the  locks  at  Pedro  i\liguel 
to  deep  water  in  Panama  Bay;  and  here  some  15.000,000  cubic  yards 
are  to  be  removed,  of  which  about  one-twentieth  is  rock.  The 
dredging  plant  now  here  consists  of  tw^o  French  ladder  dredges  and 
one  5-yard  dipper  dredge  served  by  eight  "Clapets;"  three  steel 
hopper  barges  to  be  towed  by  the  latter  are  under  contract.  The 
old  French  material  has  been  repaired  and  is  reported  as  doing 
excellent  service;  two  of  the  ladder  dredges  removed  287,107  cubic 
yards  during  October.  The  new  sea-going  suction  dredge  "Cul- 
ebra" is  expected  to  arrive  from  Baltimore,  via  the  Straits  of  Magel- 
lan, in  January,  1908 — a  voyage  of  12,000  miles.  Its  consort, 
"Ancon,"  Avhich  will  work  pumping  material  on  the  Gatun  dam 
when  the  site  has  been  prepared,  has  made  a  fine  record  in  Limon 
Bay,  where  it  arrived  in  last  August.  In  September  it  removed  and 
dumped  in  the  sea  off  Toro  Point  260,773  cubic  yards,  a  volume 
equivalent  to  the  output  of  14  steam  shovels  served  by  about  30 
trains  of  16  cars  each  ;  thus  57  men  operating  the  dredge  did  the 
work  of  about  1.500 — but  working  of  course  in  much  softer  material. 

The  heaviest  excavation  is  concentrated  in  tlie  Culebra  division 
between  Bas  Obispo  and  Pedro  Miguel,  a  distance  of  nine  and  a 
half  miles.  This  is  now  organized  in  five  sections  of  about  equal 
length,  each  under  a  local  superintendent,  reporting  through  two 
intermediate  engineers  to  the  commissioner  in  charge,  Major  Gail- 


32  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

lard.  Throughout  this  distance  a  lo-inch  pipe  Hue  main  has  been 
extended,  with  6-inch  and  4-inch  leads  running  into  the  canal  prism. 
Air  pressure  is  maintained  by  twelve  compressors,  each  having  a 
capacity  of  2,500  cubic  feet  per  minute,  at  100  pounds  pressure,  all 
feeding  into  the  main.  This  supplies  power  to  the  rock  drills  and 
stone  crushers  on  the  line,  and  to  the  coal  chutes,  and  to  the 
machine  shops  at  Las  Cascadas  and  Pedro  Miguel.  A  recent  inven- 
tion of  Mr.  Bierd,  late  manager  of  the  Panama  Railroad,  has  intro- 
duced an  improvement  in  the  mode  of  transferring  the  soil  to  the 
dumps.  Under  the  heavy  rainfall  during  nine  months  of  the  year 
the  constant  shifting  of  track  incident  to  the  work  has  always 
caused  much  loss  of  time.  Instead  of  the  old  operation  of  prying 
up  the  rails  with  screw  jacks,  shifting  the  ties,  and  then  spiking 
the  track  down  again,  the  device  of  Mr.  Bierd  shifts  the  whole  at 
once.  It  consists  of  a  double-drum  hoisting  engine  with  a  hori- 
zontal and  a  vertical  boom,  all  mounted  on  a  flat  car.  It  is  capable 
of  throwing  5,400  lineal  feet  of  track  a  distance  of  9  feet  in  eight 
hours,  representing  the  work  of  five  or  six  hundred  men  under  the 
former  svstem.  It  is  operated  by  three  mechanics  and  six  laborers. 
As  this  kind  of  work  never  ceases,  the  saving  both  of  time  and  cost 
is  important.  The  use  of  mechanical  unloaders  also  greatly  expe- 
dites work.  A  record  is  reported  when  a  single  unloader  served 
by  28  white  men  and  43  laborers  and  firemen  disposed  in  eight 
hours  of  the  material,  5,000  cubic  yards,  brought  by  16  trains. 

The  Chagres  division,  so-called,  extends  from  the  point  where 
the  river  first  strikes  the  canal  to  deep  water  in  Gatun  Lake.  Here 
the  excavation  will  approximate  to  13,000,000  cubic  yards,  of  which 
about  5,000,000  are  rock.  The  width  of  the  channel  for  shipping 
gradually  widens  as  the  deep  lake  is  approached,  and  crosses  the 
present  bed  of  the  river  over  twenty  times.  In  the  northern  portion 
the  latter  will  not  require  excavation,  but  the  banks  throughout 
form  detached  peninsulas  v/hich  must  be  removed.  The  rock  and 
earth  nearbv  will  be  excavated  with  steam  shovels,  and  the  remain- 
ing earth  will  be  dredged  after  the  lake  begins  to  rise.  Work  has 
been  started  at  three  points  already.  It  is  here  that  freshets  will 
cause  most  annoA-ance.  The  old  French  diversion  channels  to  the 
southward  have  been  considera1)ly  extended,  and  more  work  of  this 
kind  is  in  progress. 

The  following  figures  show  the  monthly  progress  in  excava- 


Present  Status  of  the  Panama  Project 


33 


tion  since  the  last  reorganization  of  the  Canal  Commission.  At  the 
Culebra  in  September  about  five-sevenths  of  the  output  were 
classed  as  rock. 

Output  in  Cubic  Yards  in  ipoy. 


By  Steam  Shovels. 

By  Dredges  near 

Month. 

Culebra. 

Gatun. 

Mindi. 

Cha- 
gres. 

La 
Boca. 

Colon . 

La  Boca. 

Total. 

•1 

879.527 
690,365 

624,586 
770,570 
786,8()6 
753,468 
834,499 
790,632 

103.459 
70,528 
75,013 
74,165 
105; 223 
123.738 
177.013 

1,756 
762 

4,907 
13,772 
15.865 
12,806 

7,108 

8,190 

69,889 
133,847 
124,118 
109,922 
209,554 
420,842 
426.282 
427,572 

104,855 
122,157 
131,580 
108,338 
1(S,284 
161,350 
357,122 
365,423 

1.159,486 

■K/r\         

1,017,659 

TllTlP 

960,204 

Tulv                    

731 
15,257 

28,8£7 
41 ,078 

■  2,820' 
23,746 
25.627 
44,044 

1,077,498 

1,303,869 

September 

1,524,787 
1,868,729 

162,622  ;  40.003 

1,838,486 

Total       

6,130,513 

891,761 

125,906 

96.237 

65.166 

1,922,026 

1,519.109 

10,750,718 

Before  the  type  of  the  canal  was  decided  (June,  1906)  it  was 
impossible  to  begin  work  on  the  locks  and  dams, — ^an  unfortunate 
circumstance,  because  here  will  now  probably  be  found  the  chief 
delays  in  opening  the  route  to  traffic.  Operations  under  the  super- 
vision of  Major  Sibert  have,  however,  started  vigorously  at  Gatun. 
At  the  end  of  August,  six  steam  shovels  were  excavating  at  the  lock 
sites  and  spillway,  and  railway  trestles  were  erecting  and  prepara- 
tions were  making  for  dumping  and  sluicing  materials  at  the  dam. 
So  soon  as  the  pipe  line  dredges  and  the  plant  for  mixing  concrete 
can  be  installed  progress  will  be  rapid.  Suitable  stone  and  sand 
for  concrete  have  been  loc?<-'"d  near  Porto  Bello ;  also  material  for 
cement  of  the  highest  grade  at  a  cost  not  exceding  $1.34  per  barrel, 
in  case  unreasonable  prices  should  be  demanded  for  supplying  it  by 
sea.  To  reduce  expense  the  idea  has  been  suggested  of  importing 
cement  clinker  to  be  ground  on  the  Isthmus.  Work  on  the  lock 
and  dam  sites  at  La  Boca  has  also  been  inaugurated  actively. 

The  Panama  Railroad  is  in  busy  operation.  During  last  June, 
in  addition  to  the  1,284  commercial  trains,  3,874  construction 
trains  were  reported  as  transporting  canal  materials.  As  many  as 
196  trains  occasionally  passed  a  single  point  on  a  single  day.  The 
wear  and  tear  of  the  hard  service  upon  the  cars,  loaded  often  with 
huge  rocks  by  steam  shovels  and  discharged  mechanicallv  at  the 
dumps,    demands   continual    repairs,   and    the    shops    at    Gorgona, 


34  '^^'(^  Anitals  of  the  American  Academy 

Empire,  and  Paraiso  are  under  constant  pressure.  In  June  work 
was  begun  simultaneously  at  seven  different  points  on  the  new 
permanent  location  of  the  railroad ;  about  10,000,000  cubic  yards 
of  fill  in  excess  of  excavation  will  furnish  dumps  for  material 
from  the  canal  prism,  as  the  lake  will  cause  important  changes 
in  the  line. 

But,  it  may  be  asked,  how  about  finances?  The  total  outlay 
needful  for  opening  a  governmental  route  for  shipping  between 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  via  the  Isthmus,  is  naturally  classed 
under  two  distinct  categories — the  technical  cost  of  constructing  the 
canal,  and  certain  collateral  expenses  of  ownership  and  control, 
such  as  for  right  of  way,  for  Zone  government,  for  sanitation,  in- 
cluding that  of  the  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon,  to  be  repaid 
ultimately,  and  for  the  commercial  operation  of  the  Panama  Rail- 
road. These  several  items  are  often  improperly  blended  in  one, 
and  the  daily  press  is  already  beginning  to  claim  that  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  estimated  cost  of  constructing  the  canal  has  been  ex- 
pended already.  The  truth  will  be  understood  from  the  following 
statement. 

The  total  expenditures  which  are  properly  chargeable  to  tech- 
nical canal  construction  are  shown  in  the  following  table,  based  on 
official  statements  in  the  Canal  Record : 

To  Dec.  ,31,  1906.  To  June  30,  1907. 

For   material   and   supplies    $3,449,022.96  $3,649,665.13 

For   general   administration    1,124,226.55  1,403,557.68 

For  construction   and   engineering    9.729.554.98  15,594,834.17 

For   plant    12,138,852.17  18,484,300.74 

Total    since    transfer    $26,441,656.66  39,132,357.72 

The  aggregate  outlay  for  all  expenditures,  including  right  of 
way,  during  these  two  periods  was  respectively  $84,449,000.32  and 
$98,285,110.37.  The  gross  error  of  charging  aggregate  outlay  to 
canal  construction  proper  is  thus  apparent.  The  question  remains, 
what  is  the  proper  standard  for  judging  whether  or  not  the  actual 
work  of  construction  is  progressing  in  a  satisfactory  manner  from 
a  financial  point  of  view. 

In  the  act  approved  June  20,  1906.  Congress  specifically  in- 
dorsed the  project  submitted  by  the  members  of  the  Board  of  Con- 
sulting Engineers  favoring  the  lock  type  of  canal,  for  which  the 


Present  Status  of  the  Panama  Project  35 

estimate  was  $139,705,200.  This  estimate  includes  no  part  of  the 
outlay  (approximately  $16,000,000)  prior  to  the  rendition  of  their 
report  (January  10,  1906),  and  expressly  excludes  all  future  costs 
of  sanitation  and  of  the  Zone  government.  Furthermore,  the  unit 
prices  were  based  on  a  lo-hour  day,  which  had  always  ruled  on 
the  Isthmus,  and  to  which  the  adoption  of  an  8-hour  day  has  added 
20  per  cent  in  so  far  as  the  cost  of  labor  is  involved.  Thus  it  ap- 
pears that,  even  omitting-  this  last  increment  of  the  estimate,  only 
about  $10,000,000  should  be  considered  as  expended  upon  the 
adopted  project  on  December  31,  1906,  and  only  about  $23,000,000 
on  June  30,  1907.  In  other  words,  at  the  latter  date  there  re- 
mained of  it  unexpended  about  $117,000,000.  Wage  rates  ruling 
higher  than  those  under  the  direction  of  the  private  French  com- 
panies, and  much  larger  and  more  expensive  locks  than  were  con- 
templated by  the  project  as  submitted,  may  enhance  the  estimated 
cost;  but  there  is  no  indication  that  there  will  be  a  serious  deficit. 
In  fine,  an  era  of  rapid  progress  has  been  inaugurated  under  an 
efificient  organization,  with  every  promise  of  success,  and  the  ex- 
penditures have  been  kept  within  reasonable  limits.  It  would  still 
be  premature  to  predict  any  exact  date  of  completion,  but  there  is 
no  reason  to  apprehend  needless  or  long  delay.  The  estimate  of  the 
Consulting  Engineers  reporting  the  project  (but  with  locks  of 
smaller  dimensions)  was  nine  years,  dating  from  the  beginning  of 
active  prosecution  of  the  work.  Nearly  one  year  of  the  nine  has 
already  passed,  and  any  reduction  of  this  estimate  will  reflect  credit 
on  the  canal  administration. 

Note.— The  important  announcement  has  just  been  made  that  the  Presi- 
dent, upon  the  recommendation  of  Colonel  Goethals,  has  approved  a  radical 
change  in  the  plan  of  the  canal  near  the  Pacific  coast,  by  suppressing  the 
projected  Lake  Sosa  and  transferring  the  two  locks  in  flight  from  La  Boca 
to  Miraflores,  thus  locating  the  latter  about  four  miles  inland  and  connect- 
ing them  with  the  ocean  by  a  cliannel  at  sea  level  about  500  feet  wide.  This 
was  the  disposition  adopted  by  the  engineers  of  tlic  New  Panama  Canal 
Company,  and  it  is  decidedly  an  improvement,  since  it  not  only  largely  reduces 
the  cost  but  also  places  the  locks  in  a  position  much  less  exposed  to  bom- 
bardment by  a  hostile  fleet.  Numerous  test  pits  at  Miraflores  demonstrate 
that  solid  rock  foundations  exist  for  the  locks  at  that  locality,  and  the 
construction  of  two  large  dams  becomes  unnecessary. 


LEGISLATIVE  PROGRAM   CONGRESS   SHOULD   ADOPT 
FOR  IMPROVEMENT  OF  AMERICAN  WATERWAYS 


By  Joseph  E.  Ransdell,  LL.D., 

Member  of  the  Rivers  and  Harbors  Committee  of  Congress   from  the  Fifth 

Louisiana  District,  and  President  of  the  National 

Rivers  and  Harbors  Congress. 


There  has  been  much  discussion  about  the  improvement  of  the 
waterways  of  the  United  States  during  recent  years,  and  great  and 
general  interest  has  been  aroused  on  the  subject.  A  number  of 
waterway  associations  have  been  formed  to  press  upon  Congress 
the  importance  of  specific  projects;  and  though  local  in  character, 
many  of  them  represent  very  large  sections  and  have  gathered  into 
their  ranks  great  numbers  of  men  and  much  capital.  Among  the 
most  prominent  of  these  associations  are:  The  Western  Water- 
ways Asociation,  which  aims  to  unite  in  a  concentrated  eflfort  for 
the  common  weal  all  the  streams  of  the  Mississippi  Valley ;  the  Lake 
Carriers'  Association,  which  carefully  watches  all  lake  interests; 
the  Interstate  Mississippi  River  Levee  Association,  which  looks 
after  the  levees  of  that  river  from  Cairo  to  the  Gulf;  the  Ohio 
Valley  Improvement  Association,  whose  object  is  to  deepen  the  Ohio 
River  to  nine  feet  from  Pittsburg  to  Cairo;  the  Upper  Mississippi 
River  Improvement  Association,  which  wishes  to  see  good  naviga- 
tion on  the  father  of  waters  from  St.  Louis  to  St.  Paul ;  the  Lakes- 
tp-the-Gulf  Deep  Waterway  Association,  which  proposes  to  connect 
Lake  Michigan  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by  a  channel  of  fourteen 
feet ;  the  Missouri  A^alley  River  Improvement  Association,  which  ex- 
pects to  have  not  less  than  eight  feet  and  hopes  to  have  twelve  feet 
in  that  great  stream  from  its  mouth  to  Omaha :  the  Interstate  Inland 
Waterway  Association,  which  seeks  to  join  the  Mississippi  River 
and  the  Rio  Grande  by  a  nine-foot  canal,  linking  together  the  vari- 
ous waterways  along  the  coasts  of  Louisiana  and  Texas ;  the  Colum- 
bia River  Association,  which  hopes  to  overcome  the  obstacles  to 
navigation  in  that  mighty  river  by  a  canal  and  locks  at  The  Dalles 
and  by  rock  dredging  above ;  the  Atlantic  Deeper  Waterways  Asso- 
ciation, which  advocates  a  continuous  inland  route  for  our  naval 
and  merchant  ships  from  Boston  to  Jacksonville.  Fla..  thereby  avoid- 

(36) 


Program  for  Improvement  of  American  Waterzvays  37 

ing  all  dangers  of  the  open  ocean,  and  which  hopes  ultimately  to 
cross  the  Florida  peninsula  and  skirt  the  Gulf  coast  to  New  Orleans ; 
the  Tennessee,  the  Cumberland,  the  Ouachita,  the  Red,  the  Trinity, 
the  Chattahoochee,  the  Cape  Fear  rivers  associations,  and  many 
others. 

In  addition  there  has  been  the  most  vigorous  and  determined 
effort  on  the  part  of  maritime  interests  in  the  great  seaport  cities, 
like  Philadelphia,  New  York,  Boston,  Baltimore,  Norfolk,  Savannah, 
Tampa,  Mobile,  New  Orleans,  Galveston,  Los  Angeles,  Oakland, 
Portland,  and  Seattle. 

All  these  associations  have  labored  with  much  energy  and  with 
more  or  less  success  for  their  own  particular  projects  without  any 
concert  of  action  ;  and  it  was  to  bring  about  a  united  action  of  all 
waterway  interests  that  the  National  Rivers  and  Harbors  Congress 
was  organized  in  the  fall  of  1901  and  reorganized  on  its  present 
basis  in  January,  1906.  This  association  is  composed  of  large  num- 
bers of  individuals,  corporations,  commercial  organizations,  and 
waterway  associations  from  thirty-three  states,  and  it  is  in  every 
sense  of  the  word  national.  It  does  not  advocate  the  improvement 
of  any  particular  project,  but  seeks  to  unite  all  friends  of  waterways 
in  an  effort  to  have  Congress  adopt  a  definite  policy  that  will  provide 
for  the  complete  improvement  within  ten  years  of  every  worthy  and 
deserving  water  course  on  our  seaboards,  lakes,  and  interior.  // 
stands  for  a  policy,  not  a  project.  Its  slogan  at  the  great  reorganiz- 
ing convention  of  January,  1906,  in  Washington,  D.  C,  was :  "An 
annual  rivers  and  harbors  bill  carrying  at  least  fifty  million  dol- 
lars :"  and  again  that  slogan  was  repeated  at  the  much  greater  con- 
vention at  the  nation's  capital  in  December,  1906,  while  Congress 
Avas  in  session.  Largely  as  the  result  of  sentiment  aroused  through 
its  efforts,  and  the  splendid  co-operation  of  all  other  waterway 
associations  and  interests,  the  greatest  rivers  and  harbors  bill  in  our 
history  was  enacted  in  June,  1907.  This  association  will  hold 
another  great  convention  at  Washington  in  December,  1907  (before 
this  article  is  published),  and  again  it  will  stand  for  "An  annual 
rivers  and  harbors  bill  carrying  at  least  fifty  million  dollars." 

These  river  and  harbor  bills  for  the  past  ten  years  were  enacted 
by  Congress  triennially:  in  1896,  1899,  1902,  and  1905.  Then, 
through  the  united  efforts  of  all  our  waterway  associations  and 
their  friends,  came  the  bill  of  1907,  at  the  end  of  tzvo  instead  of 


38  The  Annals  of  the  American  Aeade^ny 

three  years.  The  next  convention  of  the  National  Rivers  and  Har- 
bors Congress  will  insist  in  the  strongest  possible  way  upon  a  bill 
every  year,  and  will  do  its  utmost  to  have  one  enacted  next  spring 
at  the  first  session  of  the  Sixtieth  Congress.  The  annual  feature  of 
these  bills  is  regarded  as  of  paramount  importance. 

What  is  the  reason  for  all  this  agitation  and  interest?  Is  it 
sentimental  or  is  it  founded  on  solid  business  principles  ?  Undoubt- 
edly on  the  latter.  There  is  no  sentiment  about  it.  The  people  are 
very  much  in  earnest.  They  have  ascertained  by  experience  and 
study  that  transportation  by  water  is  not  only  much  cheaper  than 
by  rail,  but  also  much  quicker.  When  freight  is  loaded  in  boats  on 
lakes,  canals  or  rivers  it  moves  promptly  at  a  speed  of  from  five  to 
ten  miles  an  hour  to  its  destination,  where  it  is  quickly  discharged, 
and  the  boat  started  on  another  trip.  When  loaded  on  cars,  it  fre- 
quently remains  on  a  sidetrack  for  some  time,  and  after  reaching 
its  terminus,  the  cars  are  again  sidetracked  and  used  for  days  and 
weeks  as  storage  warehouses.  The  best  authorities  say  that  the 
average  movement  of  freight  by  rail  in  our  country  is  only  twenty- 
five  miles  per  day — only  about  one  mile  an  hour.  I  have  never 
seen  statistics  as  to  the  movement  by  water,  but  anyone  familiar 
with  the  enormous  commerce  on  the  Great  Lakes,  where  ten- 
thousand-ton  ships  make  the  round  trip  from  Bufifalo  to  Duluth  and 
return — two  thousand  miles — every  eight  to  nine  days,  carrying 
heavy  loads  each  w^ay,  can  see  that  the  movement  there  is  consid- 
erably over  200  miles  a  day. 

At  my  home.  Lake  Providence,  La.,  on  the  banks  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, 400  miles  from  New  Orleans,  we  have  large  steamers,  and 
also  the  railroad,  but  we  never  think  of  shipping  bulky  articles  by 
rail  that  can  come  or  go  by  boat.  Cotton  is  our  principal  product, 
and  we  ship  it  to  New  Orleans  wnth  the  certainty  that  it  will  reach' 
there  and  be  in  the  consignee's  hands  within  three  days.  If  sent  by 
rail,  it  would  be  big  luck  to  have  it  reach  the  consignee  in  ten  days. 
The  delivery  by  boat  in  three  days  is  certain  and  by  rail  in  ten  days 
is  most  uncertain.  I  do  not  think  sufficient  stress  has  been  laid 
upon  the  greater  rapidity  of  freight  movements  by  water  than  by 
rail,  and  invite  a  study  and  comparison  thereon.  It  is  the  old  story 
of  the  race  between  the  tortoise  and  the  hare.  The  former  won  in 
spite  of  his  slow  movements  because  he  kept  going.  And  the  boats 
win  for  the  same  reason.     They  do  not  slumber  on  side  tracks, 


Program  for  Improvement  of  Ameriean  IVaterivays  39 

as  the  hare  and  the  railroad,  hut  keep  moving  Hke  the  patient  tortoise 
and  win  every  time. 

As  to  the  relative  cost  hy  the  two  methods,  there  can  be  no 
difference  of  opinion.  The  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  re- 
ported that  the  average  cost  of  moving  freight  by  rail  in  1906  was 
/.48  mills  per  ion  per  mile.  The  statistical  report  on  the  lake  com- 
merce for  1906  by  Colonel  Davis,  U.  S.  E.  C,  shows  it  cost  to  move 
over  51,000,000  tons  through  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Canal  last  year 
.84  of  one  mill  per  ton  per  mile,  or  one-ninth  of  the  average  rail  rate. 
Major  William  L.  Sibert,  now  a  member  of  the  Panama  Commis- 
sion, for  years  United  States  Engineer  at  Pittsburg,  and  one  of  the 
most  accomplished  members  of  the  engineer  corps  of  the  army, 
estimates  that  in  1905,  in  spite  of  the  unsatisfactory  condition  of 
the  Ohio  River,  it  cost  to  move  freight  from  Pittsburg  to  Louisville 
.76  of  one  mill  per  ton  per  mile,  or  one-tenth  the  average  rail 
rate,  and  from  Louisville  to  New  Orleans  .67  of  one  mill  per  ton  per 
mile,  or  one-eleventh  of  the- rail  rate.  From  the  best  information 
I  can  get  after  a  careful  study  of  the  subject,  I  am  convinced  that 
waterzvay  transportation  in  this  country,  under  favorable  conditions, 
costs  only  about  one-sixth  as  much  as  the  average  cost  by  rail. 

The  above  remarks  apply  to  the  lakes  and  rivers  and  furnish 
unanswerable  arguments  for  their  improvement;  but  there  are  just 
as  good  reasons  for  giving  our  harbors  the  greatest  available  depth 
and  placing  them  on  a  par  with  the  great  foreign  ports  which  re- 
ceive our  splendid  commerce.  The  larger  the  ship  the  greater  its 
carrying  capacity  and  the  cheaper  its  rates  of  freight.  Vessels  draw- 
ing twenty-eight  to  thirty-two  feet  and  carrying  eight  to  twelve 
thousand  tons  can  and  do  carry  freight  very  much  cheaper  than 
those  drawing  twenty-two  to  twenty-four  feet  and  carrying  three  to 
four  thousand  tons.  The  ocean  rates  to-day  on  the  immense  steam- 
ers plying  at  our  great  harbors,  which  have  been  deepened  to  thirty 
and  more  feet,  are  from  one-third  to  one-fourth  the  rates  of  twenty- 
five  years  ago,  when  steamers  drew  only  twenty-two  to  twenty-three 
feet;  and  this  saving  of  300  to  400  per  cent  in  transportation 
charges  is  directly  due  to  the  improvement  of  these  harbors.  Our 
government  never  made  a  wiser  expenditure  of  its  funds.  The 
farmer  on  the  western  plains  and  the  cotton  grower  of  the  South 
get  the  direct  benefits  of  these  cheap  rates,  for  his  produce  is  worth 
on  his  farm  its  price  at  Liverpool  or  Antwerp  less  the  cost  of  trans- 


40  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

portation  from  the  farm  to  those  great  markets.  Every  citizen  of 
the  Union  is  benefited.  Practically  all  our  zuaterzuay  expenditures 
have  been  profitable  investments.  They  have  returned  in  reduced 
freight  rates  to  the  American  people  from  loo  to  200  per  centum 
every  year.  And  yet  while  appropriations  for  most  purposes  of  gov- 
ernment have  been  Hberal,  those  for  waterways  have  been  stingy 
and  unbusinessHke  in  the  extreme.  During  our  entire  history  as  a 
nation,  to  the  close  of  the  last  fiscal  year,  on  all  our  waterways  of 
every  sort,  including  those  in  far  away  Hawaii,  the  total  expenditure 
was  only  $523.330,232 ;  yet  we  gave  the  navy  during  the  past  five 
years  $490,199,715.  Nearly  as  much  to  the  navy  in  five  years  as  to 
rivers  and  harbors  during  the  1 18  years  of  our  national  existence! 

For  the  five  years  ending  June  30th  last  all  our  seaboard  and 
lake  harbors,  our  lakes,  rivers,  and  canals  received  an  average  an- 
nual appropriation  of  only  $23,425,131.30 — less  than  3  per  cent  of 
the  total  expenses  of  government,  and  a  sum  entirely  inadequate  to 
their  merits  and  needs.  The  December  convention  of  the  National 
Rivers  and  Harbors  Congress  will  insist  that  this  appropriation  shall 
hereafter  be  not  less  than  fifty  million  dollars  every  year. 

The  rivers  and  harbors  act  of  last  session  carried  an  appropria- 
tian  of  $34,631,612  in  cash,  and  authorized  contracts  to  the  amount 
of  $48,834,526,  making  a  total  of  $83,466,138.  Under  the  authoriza- 
tion clause,  variovis  works  will  be  placed  under  contract  and  will 
be  paid  for  from  year  to  year  as  appropriations  are  hereafter  made 
by  Congress.  In  some  instances  it  will  be  seven  or  eight  years 
before  these  contracts  are  completed,  hence  some  of  the  sums  author- 
ized in  this  bill  will  not  be  actually  appropriated  for  several  years. 

This  bill  was  the  w^isest  and  most  businesslike  rivers  and  har- 
bors bill  ever  enacted  in  our  country.  It  provided  all  sums  necessary 
for  the  completion  of  some  most  important  works,  notably  at  the 
harbors  of  Boston  and  Baltimore,  the  channels  at  the  mouths  of  the 
^Mississippi  and  Columbia  rivers,  the  new  lock  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie, 
and  the  new  channel  in  the  Detroit  River.  These  six  projects  re- 
quired $24,426,194  to  complete  them,  and  the  total  was  carried  in 
the  bill.  Work  was  already  in  progress,  under  the  act  of  T905,  at 
Boston  and  Baltimore,  and  on  the  ]\Tississippi  and  Columbia  rivers, 
but  the  Sault  lock  and  the  Detroit  River  project  were  entirely  new, 
and  the  amount  they  received  was  $12,870,950.  These  six  great  and 
deserving  projects  are  now  out  of  the  way,  and  need  no  considera- 


Program  fur  Improvement  of  American  IVaterzuays  41 

tion  in  future  bills.  Let  us  compare  the  wisdom  with  which  they 
were  handled  in  the  bills  of  1905  and  1907  with  some  other  water- 
way projects. 

We  undertook  to  improve  the  Harlem  River  in  New  York 
City,  within  the  shadow  of  Wall  Street,  in  1878,  twenty-nine  years 
ago,  on  a  plan  estimated  to  cost  $2,700,000.  During  those  twenty- 
nine  years  about  $1,350,000  have  been  appropriated  and  spent,  and 
the  work  is  only  about  one-half  finished.  The  commerce  on  the 
Harlem  River  last  year  was  9,998,021  tons,  valued  at  $270,210,309. 
At  the  present  rate  of  appropriation  it  will  require  another  twenty- 
nine  years  to  complete  the  project. 

About  twenty-three  years  ago  we  began  a  project  for  six-foot 
slack-water  navigation  on  the  Warrior  and  Tombigbee  rivers  in 
Alabama  to  connect  with  as  rich  coal  mines  as  there  are  on  earth 
and  to  supply  cheap  coal  to  the  whole  Gulf  coast,  to  our  navy,  and 
to  the  great  ocean  fleet  of  that  section.  At  first  the  project  was 
estimated  to  cost  $3,000,000,  but  subsequently  the  plan  was  changed 
and  the  estimated  cost  increased  to  $6,000,000.  After  twenty-three 
years  it  still  remains  far  from  completion. 

In  1875-76,  some  thirty-two  years  ago,  a  project  providing 
for  a  six-foot  slack-water  navigation  on  the  Ohio  was  adopted  and 
work  begun  thereon.  It  has  proceeded  with  a  snail's  pace.  Out 
of  fifty-two  locks  and  dams  provided  for  in  this  project  only  six 
have  been  completed  and  four  others  are  in  process  of  construction. 
The  project  has  been  changed  to  a  nine-foot  depth  instead  of  six, 
and  the  estimated  cost  of  completion  is  $63,000,000.  If  this  gigantic 
and  most  meritorious  work  is  continued  at  the  same  rate  as  for  the 
past  thirty-one  years,  it  will  not  be  finished  by  the  close  of  this 
century.  It  is  true  that  a  little  better  progress  has  been  made  dur- 
ing the  past  seven  years,  and  at  the  present  rate  we  may  hope  to 
see  the  Ohio  canalized  in  about  fifty  years. 

These  are  striking  examples  of  the  extreme  slowness  and  un- 
businesslike way  in  which  river  and  harbor  works  have  been  car- 
ried on.  It  was  not  the  fault  of  the  rivers  and  harbors  committee. 
They  did  as  well  as  they  could  with  the  limited  amounts  at  their  dis- 
posal. Public  sentiment  did  not  seem  to  be  with  them  in  the  past, 
and  they  could  not  provide  the  large  sums  necessary  to  push  meri- 
torious works  to  speedy  completion.  And  yet  the  clamor  from 
many  communities  was  so  great  that  they  could  not  avoid  making 


42  The  ^iiiiials  of  the  .bncrican  Aeadeiny 

partial  appropriations  for  prosecution  of  projects  which  could  not 
be  entirely  finished,  although  they  realized  how  much  wiser  it  would 
have  been  to  confine  their  efforts  to  fewer  works  and  finish  them 
as  they  went  along.  This  policy  of  completing  old  projects  before 
undertaking  new  ones  was  to  a  great  extent  applied  in  the  act  of 
1907,  and  is  nuich  wiser. 

Now  what  should  be  the  legislative  program  that  Congress 
should  adopt  for  the  improvement  of  American  waterways?  In 
my  opinion,  one  that  zcill  proz'ide  for  the  proper  iuiproveuient  zvithin 
the  next  ten  years  of  all  zvatenvay  projects  along  the  seaboard,  the 
lakes,  and  the  interior  rivers  that  are  really  ivorthy  of  it,  and 
zvhose  improvement  seems  ivarrantcd  by  prospective  benetits  to 
commerce.     I  fix  ten  years  as  the  period  because: 

First.  The  cost  of  these  improvements  will  be  considerable — 
probably  half  a  billion  dollars  for  the  projects  already  surveyed, 
which  amount  would  require  an  appropriation  of  fifty  millions  a 
year  for  that  period. 

Second.  The  character  of  the  work  in  most  cases  is  such  that 
it  must  proceed  slowly,  and  even  if  the  total  sum  were  available  it 
would  require  about  ten  years  to  finish  many  of  the  greater  projects. 
Some  of  them  are  fairly  comparable  in  difficulty  of  detail  and  execu- 
tion with  the  new  Erie  and  Panama  canals,  and  the  engineers  of 
those  two  great  works  estimate  for  their  completion  at  least  ten 
years  from  inception. 

Third.  The  most  ardent  enthusiast  of  w^aterways  is  willing  to 
admit  that  in  practical  government  its  various  branches  should  move 
along  "pari  passu."  and  all  he  expects  is  a  reasonable  legislative 
program  which  places  waterway  improvement  on  a  parity  with  other 
government  works. 

Now  would  it  be  unreasonable  to  expend  fifty  millions,  or  even 
one  hundred  millions,  a  year  for  improving  our  waterways,  materi- 
ally benefitting  commerce,  reducing  freight  congestions  and  cheapen- 
ing freight  rates,  so  that  every  citizen  of  the  Union  w^ould  feel  its 
good  effects?  By  no  means.  It  would  be  most  reasonable  and 
wise.  T.ct  us  institute  a  few  comparisons  on  which  to  base  an 
opinion.  For  the  five  years  ending  June  30,  1907,  fortifications  re- 
ceived an  annual  appropriation  of  $6,761,489.  nearly  one  per  cent  of 
all  expenses  of  government ;  the  army  received  $80,5094^0,  or  about 
10  per  cent;  the  navy,  $98,039,942,  or  about  12  per  cent;  and  pen- 


Program  for  Improz'cnicnt  of  American  IVatcrzvays  43 

sions,  $140,851,836,  about  17  per  cent;  while  rivers  and  harbors 
received  an  average  of  only  $23,425,121.30  a  year  as  above  set  out, 
or  less  than  3  per  cent.  Commerce  is  surely  as  important  as  war; 
and  as  we  are  now  giving  to  war  and  its  rewards — fortifications,  the 
army,  the  navy,  and  pensions— $336,168,748  a  year— over  40  per 
cent  of  the  expenses  of  government — and  only  about  3  per  cent  to 
rivers  and  harbors,  surely  we  can  afiford  to  give  to  our  waterways 
for  commerce  at  the  very  lowest  calculation  at  least  fifty  millions, 
or  7  per  cent.  If  we  made  it  one  hundred  millions  it  would  be  only 
14  per  cent  of  our  annual  expenditures  and  still  not  be  on  a  par 
with  those  made  for  war. 

How  shall  we  secure  this  program?  The  present  method  of 
passing  rivers  and  harbors  bills  every  two  or  three  years,  which  in 
many  instances  makes  only  partial  provision  for  specific  projects  and 
does  not  commit  or  bind  succeeding  Congresses  to  complete  them, 
is  lacking  in  that  continuity  of  plan  and  purpose  essential  to  suc- 
cess. This  is  forcibly  illustrated  by  the  cases  of  the  Harlem,  the 
Warrior-Tombigbee,  and  the  Ohio  Rivers  above  cited,  and  there 
are  a  great  many  others  exactly  similar.  The  last  bill,  as  stated, 
was  a  vast  improvement  in  this  respect  and  made  definite  provision 
for  the  final  completion  of  six  great  projects.  If  we  could  have 
such  a  bill  every  year  as  that  of  last  June,  each  providing  for  the 
completion  on  the  continuous  contract  method  of  several  projects, 
the  work  would  be  well  in  hand  very  soon,  and  we  could  expect 
the  consummation  of  our  hopes  w'ithin  a  few  years. 

I  am  strongly  of  the  opinion  that  for  the  present  the  best  plan 
for  Congress  to  pursue  is  to  pass  a  rivers  and  harbors  bill  at  the 
coming  session  carrying  in  cash  and  authorizations  from  fiftv  to  sixtv 
million  dollars  and  making  provision : 

First.  For  the  completion  of  several  of  the  more  worthy 
projects  under  way,  whose  aggregate  cost  will  not  exceed  one-third 
of  the  bill ;  say  about  eighteen  to  twenty  millions. 

Second.  For  the  active  prosecution  on  a  generous  scale  of  other 
great  works  now  under  construction,  whose  total  cost  is  too  great 
to  permit  of  provision  for  completion  in  one  bill. 

Third.  Adopting  plans  for  and  beginning  work  on  some  very 
important  new  projects  not  yet  adopted  ;  and 

Fourth.  Ordering  surveys  for  proposed  pro'jects  of  much 
apparent  merit. 


44  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

I  would  like  to  see  the  completion  of  as  many  projects  as  pos- 
sible definitely  provided  for  in  this  bill  and  the  work  placed  under 
continuing  contract,  so  that  no  change  of  administration  or  policy 
could  jeopardize  the  success  of  a  work  or  indefinitely  delay  it,  after 
it  had  once  been  adopted  and  begun,  as  was  the  case  with  the  Har- 
lem, the  Warrior-Tombigbee,  and  the  Ohio  Rivers,  as  explained 
above. 

It  would  not  be  feasible  without  a  complete  change  in  the 
present  methods  to  provide  in  one  bill  for  the  completion  of  colossal 
projects  like  the  Ohio  River,  which  will  cost  over  $60,000,000,  or 
the  lakes  to  the  Gulf  deep-waterway,  which  will  cost  much  more 
than  the  Ohio ;  but  if  the  bill  of  next  spring  definitely  adopts  the 
plan  for  nine  feet  from  Pittsburg  to  Cairo  and  makes  an  appropria- 
tion of  two  and  a  half  millions  in  cash  and  five  millions  in  authoriza- 
tions for  the  completion  of  six  or  seven  designated  locks  and  dams 
on  the  Ohio,  and  does  as  well  for  the  lakes  to  the  Gulf  deep-water- 
way, it  would  place  those  two  truly  great  projects  on  a  fairly  safe 
basis,  and  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  chances  of  further  delay  in 
their  completion. 

The  same  would  be  true  of  other  projects  of  great  magnitude 
and  cost.  They  could  not  be  fully  provided  for,  but  might  be 
adopted  as  a  whole  and  good  round  sums  be  appropriated  to  prose- 
cute the  w^ork  thereon.  The  rivers  and  harbors  bill  of  the  following 
year  could  make  further  provision  for  them,  and  in  a  few  years  they 
would  be  finished.  Of  course  this  theory  is  based  upon  the  idea 
that  we  arc  to  have  an  annual  rivers  and  harbors  bill  in  the  future, 
and  that  it  is  to  carry  an  average  of  at  least  fifty  million  dollars 
every  year.  If  we  are  to  follow  the  past  method  of  a  bill  every  two 
or  three  years,  I  see  no  hope  for  the  speedy  improvement  of  our 
great  internal  river  systems.  The  harbors  and  connecting  channels 
on  seaboards  and  lakes  will  be  promptly  finished  in  the  future  just 
as  they  have  been  in  the  past,  for  they  are  railroad  terminals,  bnt  our 
rivers  zvhich  are  railroad  competitors  will  not  be  completed  under  the 
present  methods  within  any  reasonable  period  of  time.  We  must 
change  the  method.  IVe  must  pass  rivers  and  harbors  bills  evcrv 
year,  and  they  must  carry  at  least  tivo  and  a  half  to  three  times  as 
large  appropriations  as  in  the  past.  That  is  the  only  sure  plan,  in 
my  judgment — a  rivers  and  harbors  bill  every  year  carrying  not 
less  than  fifty  million  dollars. 


Program  for  Improvoiicnt  of  American  \V atcrivays  45 

Transportation  is  one  of  the  most  important  questions  m  the 
commercial  world,  and  its  importance  will  increase  with  the  growth 
of  wealth  and  population.  Quick  and  easy  transfer  and  exchange 
of  commodities  between  different  communities  is  the  very  life  of 
trade.  The  cotton  grower  and  lumberman  of  the  South,  the  grain 
and  meat  farmer  and  lumberman  of  the  West,  must  send  their  bulky 
products  to  our  populous  middle  and  eastern  sections  and  to  Europe, 
receiving  in  exchange  innumerable  articles  of  manufacture,  etc. 
Large  numbers  of  people  are  constantly  moving  from  place  to  place, 
and  the  mail  must  be  carried  with  rapidity.  The  more  enlightened 
and  civilized  a  people  becomes  the  more  complex  and  important 
are  their  transportation  problems,  ^f  all  communication  with  the 
outside  world  were  cut  ofif  from  New  York  City  for  a  week  and  no 
food  supplies  were  sent  in  by  water,  rail,  or  earth  roads,  many 
people  would  starve.  During  the  past  two  years  the  whole  country 
has  been  aroused  on  this  subject  as  never  before.  Many  communi- 
ties have  suffered  terribly  because  a  lack  of  transportation  facili- 
ties prevented  them  from  moving  their  commodities.  Congress  has 
passed  the  rate  bill,  and  many  state  legislatures  have  enacted  laws 
intended  to  benefit  transportation.  Everybody  is  talking  about  the 
subject  in  some  form.  Many  people  think  repressive  legislation 
against  the  railroads  will  solve  it,  and  others  that  a  complete  and 
thorough  development  of  our  waterways  would  be  the  panacea  for 
all  our  transportation  ills.  None  of  these  people  are  entirely  right, 
and  all  have  more  or  less  right  on  their  side.  One  feature  of  the 
question  is  admitted  by  all  and  that  is  its  national  character.  Nature 
recognized  no  state  lines  in  laying  out  her  mighty  ivaterzvays,  and 
man  had  as  little  regard  for  them  in  constructing  railroads.  Our 
waterways  and  railroads  are  interstate.  They  extend  far  beyond 
the  confines  of  states  and  should  be  controlled  by  the  nation  rather 
than  by  the  states. 

In  my  judgment  the  great  importance  of  this  subject  warrants 
the  creation  by  the  next  Congress  of  a  department  of  transporta- 
tion, with  full  charge  of  all  matters  relating  to  highways,  railroads, 
and  waterwavs.  Its  chief  should  be  a  Cabinet  officer — the  Secretary 
of  Transportation — and  his  duties  should  be  limited  to  subjects  con- 
nected with  transportation. 

.  At  the  present  time  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  which 
executes  our  laws   relating  to   public  carriers   is   an   independent 


46  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

body,  not  connected  with  any  of  the  departments.  Waterway  im- 
provements are  under  the  War  Department,  and  arc  an  incident  or 
a  side  issue  not  naturally  connected  with  the  main  business  of  that 
great  department ;  and  such  meager  legislation  as  we  have  on  the 
subject  of  highways  is  executed  by  the  ofifice  of  good  roads  of  the 
Agricultural  Department.  If  all  these  matters  were  consolidated  in 
one  department  their  importance  would  be  greatly  emphasized  and 
they  would  receive  more  consideration  at  the  hands  of  Congress. 
How  can  the  Secretary  of  War,  with  the  manifold  and  difficult 
duties  imposed  upon  him,  be  expected  to  give  much  attention  in 
Cabinet  council,  in  his  reports  to  Congress,  and  elsewhere  to  the 
needs  of  a  side  issue  like  zvaterzvaysF  How  can  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  insist  upon  good  roads  legislation  .when  purely  agricul- 
tural subjects  make  such  a  drain  upon  him?  And  what  Cabinet 
officer  is  there  to  handle  railroad  questions?  Let  us  create  this 
department  of  transportation  by  all  means.  It  would  have  plenty 
to  do  and  would  not  be  exceeded  in  importance  and  beneficent  effects 
by  any  of  the  older  departments. 

Pending  action  on  this  department,  I  sincerely  hope  the  coming 
session  of  Congress  will  create  a  national  waterways  commission 
similar  to  the  internal  waterways  commission  appointed  by  the 
President  last  spring.  It  should  be  required  to  study  the  water- 
ways of  America  on  seaboard,  lake,  and  interior,  and  also  those 
of  the  Old  World,  with  a  view  to  advising  Congress  how  to  establish 
the  best  and  most  comprehensive  system  of  water  transportation  for 
our  countrv.  In  doing  this  our  principal  waterways  should  be  visited 
and  carefully  inspected ;  experts  and  business  men  should  be  advised 
with;  and  all  scientific  knowledge  availed  of.  The  commission 
should  visit  and  study  on  the  spot  the  waterways  of  Europe  and 
elsewhere,  so  as  to  get  the  benefit  of  all  the  world's  experience  on 
this  subject.  And  the  result  of  its  studies  and  conclusions  should 
be  submitted  to  Congress.  Its  powers  should  be  limited  to  obtain- 
ing information  in  regard  to  waterways,  together  with  the  allied 
subjects  of  forest  preservation  and  irrigation,  and  giving  advice 
concerning  them  to  Congress.  If  the  department  of  transportation 
is  created,  this  commission  should  be  one  of  its  important  bureaus. 

To  sum  up,  I  would  say  that  the  legislative  program  which 
Congress  ought  to  adopt  at  its  next  session  for  the  improvement  of 
American  waterways  should  be: 


Program  for  Improvement  of  American  IVatenvays  47 

First.  Tlie  prompt  passage  of  a  rivers  and  harbors  bill  carry- 
ing in  cash  and  authorizations  not  less  than  fifty  million  dollars. 

Second.  The  creation  of  a  national  waterways  commission  to 
study  our  waterways  and  advise  Congress  thereon. 

Third.  The  creation  of  a  department  of  transportation  with 
control  of  all  matters  relating  to  highways,  railroads,  and  waterways. 


THE  USE  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  AMERICAN 
WATERWAYS 


By  Honorable  Francis  G.  Newlands, 

United  States  Senator  from  Nevada,   and  Vice-Chairman    of    the    Inland 
Waterways  Commission. 


The  Inland  Waterways  Commission  is  the  outgrowth  of  an 
agitation  which  has  been  conducted  for  some  time,  particularly 
in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  for  the  improvement  of  our  waterways. 
The  President  was  urged  to  exercise  his  constitutional  power  of 
making  recommendations  to  Congress,  and,  pursuing  his  usual 
method  of  first  exhausting  investigation,  appointed  an  executive 
commission  with  a  view  to  gathering  into  one  body  a  number 
of  men  who,  either  in  legislative  or  in  administrative  work,  had 
acquired  experience  in  the  problems  relating  to  the  waterways  of 
the  country. 

Appointment  of  the  Commission 

As  chairman  of  this  commission  the  President  selected  Hon- 
orable Theodore  E.  Burton,  of  Ohio,  who,  as  the  head  of  the 
Rivers  and  Harbors  Committee  of  the  House  of  Representatives, 
had  discharged  the  duties  of  that  important  position  with  rare 
intelligence,  thoroughness,  and  public  spirit.  He  also  appointed 
two  United  States  Senators,  Honorable  William  Warner,  of  Mis- 
souri, and  the  writer;  another  member  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, Honorable  John  H.  Bankhead,  of  Alabama  (the  leading 
minority  member  of  the  Rivers  and  Harbors  Committee  of  the 
House),  who  has  since  become  senator;  and  five  members  of  the 
executive  department  of  the  government.  These  scientific  members 
are:  General  Alexander  Mackenzie,  Chief  of  the  Engineers  Corps 
of  the  Army;  Dr.  W.  J.  McGee,  a  scientist  and  naturalist  con- 
nected with  the  Bureau  of  Soils  in  the  Department  of  Agriculture ; 
Mr.  Frederick  H.  Newell.  Chief  of  the  Reclamation  Service ;  Mr. 
Gifford  Pinchot,  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Forestry :  and  Mr.  Herbert 
Knox  Smith,  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Corporations.  The  Presi- 
dent reserved  the  right  of  adding  to  the  commission,  in  the  future, 

(48) 


Use  and  Dcvclopmoit  of  American   IVatcrzvays  ^9 

certain  transportation  experts ;  and  it  is  possible  that  the  commis- 
sion may,  before  its  work  is  completed,  take  up  in  the  broadest 
way  the  whole  question  of  transportation. 

Purpose  of  Its  Appointment 

The  duty  imposed  upon  this  commission  was  to  investigate 
the  use  of  water,  not  only  for  navigation,  but  also  for  all  other 
purposes,  with  a  view  to  recommending  to  the  President  a  full 
and  comprehensive  plan  for  the  development  and  utilization  of  all 
the  natural  resources  of  the  country  relating  to  water.  Its  primary 
purpose  was  to  facilitate  water  transportation,  upon  which  the  pros- 
perity of  the  country  so  largely  depends.  We  have  been  for  some 
time  engaged  in  the  consideration  of  questions  relating  to  railways 
and  we  are  now  about  to  enter  upon  the  related  question  of  water- 
ways. 

Work  Performed  by  the  Commission 

Since  its  appointment  the  commission  has  been  hard  at  work 
upon  the  problems  assigned  to  it.  An  organization  was  efifected 
in  Washington,  on  April  29,  1907.  Early  in  May  the  commission 
took  a  trip  down  the  Mississippi  River  from  St.  Louis  to  the  gulf 
and  studied  the  problems  of  the  lower  part  of  that  river.  In  Sep- 
tember, a  part  of  the  commission  visited  the  Pacific  Coast  and  in- 
spected the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  rivers  in  California  and 
the  Columbia  River  in  the  Northwest.  Beginning  September  21, 
the  entire  body  started  on  a  tour  of  the  Great  Lakes,  embarking  at 
Cleveland  and  ending  at  Duluth.  Passing  from  Duluth  to  St.  Paul 
by  rail,  the  journey  was  resumed  down  that  river  on  board  a  gov- 
ernment boat  and  continued  to  Memphis,  the  President  joining  the 
party  at  Keokuk.  After  the  Memphis  convention,  most  of  the 
members  of  the  commission  proceeded  to  Kansas  City,  and  from 
that  place  made  a  tour  of  inspection  down  the  Missouri  River 
to  its  mouth.  In  these  various  tours,  covering  thousands  of  miles, 
daily  meetings  were  held  at  which  government  engineers  and  other 
experts  were  examined  and  much  testimony  taken  relative  to  the 
conditions  and  needs  of  the  rivers. 

Besides  attending  the  convention  at  ]\Iemphis,  the  commission 
was  also  represented  at  the  Irrigation  Congress  at  Sacramento, 
California ;  the  Transmississippi  Congress  at  Muskogee,  Oklahoma ; 


^o  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

the  Upper  Mississippi  Convention  at  Moline,  Illinois ;  at  the  Atlantic 
Deeper  Waterways  Conference,  in  Philadelphia,  late  in  November ; 
the  recent  congress  of  the  National  Drainage  Association,  in  Balti- 
more, and  the  National  Rivers  and  Harbors  Congress,  in  Washing- 
ton, which  closed  a  few  days  ago.  On  November  25,  the  commis- 
sion again  convened  in  Washington,  and  have  ever  since  been  busy 
considering  their  recommendations.  The  President,  in  his  message 
to  the  First  Session  of  the  Sixtieth  Congress,  stated  that  he  would 
transmit  his  recommendations  regarding  the  waterways  to  Con- 
gress after  receiving  the  report  of  the  commission.  The  work 
thus  far  performed  is  highly  instructive  and  important ;  but  until 
their  report  is  formulated  and  made  public,  what  I  shall  say  upon 
the  subject  must  be  regarded  as  only  the  expression  of  my  indi- 
vidual views. 

Importance  of  tJie  Subject 

The  transportation  question  is  the  most  important  question  of 
the  day,  and  the  reason  that  it  has  suddenly  (and  somewhat  un- 
expectedly to  many  of  us)  become  of  such  pressing  importance 
just  at  this  time  is  because  the  railway  service  of  the  country  has 
practically  broken  down.  Whilst  the  railway  development  of  the 
country  has  astonished  the  world,  and  whilst  we  have  to-day  more 
than  half  the  railway  mileage  of  the  world,  yet  that  machinery  has 
proven  inadequate  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  production  of  the 
country.  Years  ago  the  railways  were  competing  with  the  water- 
ways and  practically  drove  them  out  of  business.  But  the  efforts 
of  the  railways  to  monopolize  the  carriage  of  cheap  natural  prod- 
ucts, carried  in  other  countries  by  water,  has  resulted  in  congestion 
of  traffic  and  a  virtual  breaking  down  of  the  entire  transporta- 
tion system ;  and  it  is  essential  that  we  shall  take  immediate  steps 
to  supplement  our  railway  system  by  a  complete  system  of  water- 
way transportation.  Everywhere  else  in  the  world  water  trans- 
portation is  an  important  factor  in  both  domestic  and  foreign  com- 
merce. Germany  has  perhaps  the  most  perfect  system  of  trans- 
portation in  the  world.  Her  rivers  have  been  artificialized  from 
source  to  mouth  and  they  are  supplemented  by  a  system  of  canal, 
rail,  and  ocean  transportation  which,  combined,  give  that  country 
a  transportation  machinery  unequaled  anywhere  in  the  develop- 
ment of  domestic  and  foreign  commerce. 


Use  and  Development  of  Ameriean   IVaterzmys  51 

However  much  we  may  rely  upon  the  railways  for  quick  trans- 
portation of  persons  and  of  products,  it  is  clear  that  the  rivers 
should  also  be  used;  that  they  should  be  properly  artificialized ; 
that  their  beds  should  be  made  stable  and  their  courses  sure  for  the 
transportation  of  bulky  merchandise.  This  class  of  traffic  has  long  , 
occupied  too  large  a  proportion  of  the  available  capacity  of  the  j 
railroads,  to  the  detriment  of  other  more  valuable  products  and 
even  to  the  injury  of  life  and  limb.  Even  the  great  railway  man- 
agers, such  men  as  Mr.  Hill,  Mr.  Harahan,  Mr.  Finley,  and  others 
are  urging  the  development  of  the  inland  waterways  as  supplemen- 
tary to  the  railways.  Only  a  few  years  ago  Mr.  Hill  is  said  to 
have  declared  that  water  competition  could  not  exist  and  that, 
if  he  were  given  the  money  with  which  to  build  a  double-track  rail- 
way beside  the  proposed  enlarged  Erie  Canal,  he  would  turn  the 
canal  into  a  lily  pond.  It  will  be  remembered  also  that  with  regard 
to  the  Mississippi  River  he  declared  it  could  never  be  made  an 
efficient  instrument  of  commerce  until  its  bottom  had  been  lathed 
and  plastered.  But  the  views  of  these  men  are  changing,  and 
changing  because  they  realize  that  their  railways  have  been  over- 
taxed and  that  they  must  either  expend  vast  sums  of  money  in 
their  improvement  or  call  in  the  aid  of  the  waterways.  Mr.  Hill 
estimates  that  it  will  cost,  within  the  next  five  years,  I  believe, 
five  and  one-half  billion  dollars  to  put  the  railroads  in  condition 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  country's  traffic.  This  does  not 
appear  to  be  an  over-estimate  when  we  remember  that  the  rail- 
roads of  the  country  to-day  are  capitalized  at  about  fifteen  billion 
dollars,  and  that  there  is  little  double  track,  although  every  rail- 
road in  the  country  ought  to  be  double-tracked. 

A  Comprehensive  Plan  Necessary 
I  assume  that  the  country  will  not  be  disposed  to  enter  upon 
the  work  of  improving  the  inland  waterways  unless  a  plan  is  pre- 
sented which  will  fairly  meet  the  requirements  of  the  whole  country. 
The  movement  represents  a  policy,  not  a  project.  It  seems  improb- 
able that  any  particular  river,  such  as  the  Mississippi,  will  be  fas- 
tened upon  and  pushed  forward,  without  some  assurance  that  all 
the  other  rivers  which  require  improvement  will  also  be  taken  up 
under  a  comprehensive  plan— one  involving,  ultimately,  the  highest 
possible  development  of  all  the  waterways  of  the  country.     It  was 


52  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

doubtless  with  this  thought  in  mind  that  the  President  appointed 
the  commission,  and  it  was  doubtless  with  a  view  to  the  formula- 
tion of  such  a  plan  that  he  called  in  the  members  connected  with  the 
Engineer  Corps  of  the  Army,  the  Reclamation  Service,  the  For- 
estry Service,  and  the  Bureau  of  Soils.  There  is  practically  no 
difference  of  opinion,  I  apprehend,  as  to  the  desirability  of  improv- 
ing the  inland  waterways  of  the  country.  The  public  attention  is 
arrested  and  I  never  knew  the  people  to  be  more  interested  or 
united.  The  important  thing,  now,  is  to  give  effective  direction 
to  this  aroused  public  sentiment  by  explaining  the  true  scope  of 
the  subject  and  the  importance  of  scientific  legislation  for  carrying 
out  the  comprehensive  plans  which,  alone,  will  make  the  undertak- 
ing successful.  It  is  possible  that  the  whole  question  will  not  be 
solved  for  some  time,  for  the  reason  that  Congress  rarely  takes  the 
'  initiative ;  it  follows  public  opinion,  rather  than  leads  it.  It  is 
fortunate,  therefore,  that  these  questions  are  now  being  discussed 
in  the  various  conventions  and  conferences  held  throughout  the 
country,  and  it  is  important  that  every  man  who  has  a  thought 
of  value  upon  the  subject  should  express  it. 

Scope  of  the  Work 

It  is  impossible  to  enter,  with  hope  of  success,  upon  compre- 
hensive plans  for  the  improvement  of  our  inland  waterways,  with- 
out taking  into  consideration  the  related  questions  of  forest  preser- 
vation and  restoration,  of  the  irrigation  of  arid  lands,  of  the  re- 
clamation of  swamp  lands,  of  bank  protection,  of  clarification  of 
streams,  and  of  other  kindred  matters. 

It  is  necessary  to  preserve  the  forests  of  the  country  from  the 
destruction  which  threatens  them,  not  only  because  our  timber 
supply  is  diminishing,  but  because  forests  are  natural  conservators 
of  moisture  and  aid  in  the  gradual  distribution  of  the  waters  to  the 
streams  and  rivers  that  flow  into  the  lakes  and  the  ocean.  When 
an  area  of  land  is  denuded  of  its  forests,  the  waters  falling  upon 
it  rush  off  in  torrential  streams,  causing  destructive  floods  and  soil 
waste;  but  the  forest  absorbs  moisture  like  a  sponge  and  gives 
it  out  gradually  to  the  springs  and  streams  through  the  season  of 
drought,  thus  aiding  in  the  maintenance  of  a  stable  channel. 

So  also  with  the  question  of  the  irrigation  of  the  arid  lands 
on   the  headwaters   of  our   inland   rivers.     The  cultivation   of  the 


Use  and  Development  of  American  Waterways  53 

vast  areas  on  the  upper  reaches  of  the  western  tributaries  of  the 
Mississippi  involves  the  construction  of  great  reservoirs  for  the 
storage  of  water,  which  is  caught  while  the  snows  are  melting 
and  later  on  let  out  through  canals  upon  the  plains,  to  meet  the 
demands  of  the  growing  crops.  These  fertile  plains  drink  up  the 
moisture  and  become  themselves  great  storage  basins  which  return 
the  water  by  seepage  at  the  time  when  it  is  most  needed  for  the 
maintenance  of  a  channel  in  the  navigable  rivers  below. 

Thus,  both  forestry  and  irrigation  are  essential  to  the  preven- 
tion of  floods  and  of  soil  w^aste  and  to  the  maintenance  of  a  stable 
channel  for  navigation — to  say  nothing  of  the  vast  money  value 
or  the  great  sum  of  human  happiness  involved  in  the  possession 
of  great  forests  and  vast  areas  of  productive  irrigated  plains.  For 
the  purpose  of  navigation  it  is  of  the  very  highest  importance  that 
there  should  be  a  stable  channel,  one  of  standard  depth;  not  a 
variable  channel  forty  feet  deep  at  one  time  and  one  foot  at 
another;  not  a  channel  deep  in  one  place  and  shallow  in  others 
owing  to  the  interposition  of  shoals  and  quicksands ;  but  one  of 
standard  depth,  which  will  accommodate  vessels  of  standard  draft, 
just  as  there  is  a  standard  gauge  for  railroads.  Anything  which 
will  retard  the  flow  of  the  water  during  the  period  of  flood  and 
make  it  available  in  time  of  drought  will,  of  course,  increase  the 
stability  of  the  channel.  And  thus  it  is  that  the  questions  of  ^ 
forestry  and  irrigation  become  the  first  importance  in  connection 
with  the  problem  of  the  inland  waterways. 

Few  of  us  realize,  as  we  ought,  that  the  soil  of  our  continent 
is  being  washed  away  and  that  the  bottoms  of  the  navigable 
rivers  themselves  are  drifting  slowly  into  the  gulf  and  the  ocean. 
The  trouble  with  the  Passes  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  is  that 
a  great  delta  has  been  built  up  there,  like  the  delta  upon  wdiich 
the  City  of  New  Orleans  stands,  where  there  is  now  a  depth  of 
twelve  hundred  feet  of  alluvial  soil  which  has  been  deposited  by  that 
river.  It  is  not  impossible  that,  in  time,  the  gulf  might  be  turned 
into  a  continent  by  this  process. 

Closely  related  to  the  prevention  of  soil  waste  is  the  matter 
of  the  clarification  of  streams  ;  for  every  grain  of  sand  in  these  rivers 
is  a  tool  of  destruction  when  directed  against  the  river's  banks,  while 
clear  water  cuts  the  banks  but  little.  The  Yellowstone,  as  its  name 
indicates,  is  pouring  into  the  Missouri  immense  volumes  of  sand, 


54  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

and  the  Missouri  is  pouring  into  the  Mississippi  vast  quantities 
of  alluvial  deposits,  every  grain  of  which  is  both  a  tool  for  the 
destruction  of  the  banks  and  an  obstruction  to  navigation  when 
deposited  in  shoals  and  sandbars.  The  rivers  are  also  the  sources 
of  water  supply  for  domestic  purposes  to  cities  and  towns,  and  must 
be  purified  and  made  fit  for  consumption  and  kept  clear  of  the 
filth  and  sew^age  of  cities. 

The  reclamation  of  swamp  lands  must  also  be  considered. 
Their  reclamation  means  not  only  the  addition  of  large  and  fertile 
areas  to  the  productive  resources  of  the  country,  but  also  the  control 
of  the  streams  themselves.  These  low  lands  lie  at  the  foot  of  the 
rivers,  whose  waters  naturally  spread  out  wastefully  in  swamps 
and  bayous.  The  channels  fill  up  and  become  shallow  because 
there  is  no  current  to  carry  away  the  sediment ;  but  when  confined 
in  comparatively  narrow  channels  by  means  of  levees  the  water 
is  thereby  raised  to  a  higher  level  and  its  current  is  quickened  and 
becomes  an  efficient  power  for  carrying  away  the  sediment  and 
scouring  the  bottoms  of  the  rivers,  and  thus  creating  a  channel 
of  sufficient  depth  for  the  purpose  of  navigation.  So  that  we  have 
also  inseparably  connected  with  the  question  of  navigation  the 
related  questions  of  swamp-land  reclamation  and  bank  protection. 

All  these  uses  of  water  are  important ;  it  is  difficult  to  say  which 
is  the  most  important.  But,  assuming  that  the  transportation  of 
products  is  as  important  as  their  production,  it  is  clear  that  for 
the  proper  development  of  our  inland  waterways  we  must  embrace 
in  one  comprehensive  plan  the  treatment  of  our  forests,  the  irri- 
gation of  arid  lands,  the  reclamation  of  swamp  lands,  and  other 
related  matters.  In  doing  this,  vast  water-power  can  be  devel- 
oped, and  this  power  must  be  saved  from  the  control  of  trusts  and 
monopolies  and  care  taken  to  direct  its  use  in  the  interest  of  the 
entire  people.  It  is  estimated  that,  on  many  of  our  navigable  rivers. 
the  power  which  can  be  developed  in  this  way  will  be  sufficient 
to  pay  the  entire  cost  of  the  improvement  of  the  streams. 

Can  the  Jl'atcrzi'ays  be  Restored f 

The  outline  which  has  been  given,  based  upon  the  requirements 
of  the  Mississippi  River,  is  merely  an  illustration  of  what  is  re- 
quired on  the  Pacific  Coast  rivers  and.  in  less  degree,  on  the  rivers 
of  the  gulf  and  the  Atlantic  Coast.     The  business  question  before 


Use  and  Development  of  American   Waterways  55 

us  is  whether  we  can  restore  these  waterways  as  a  part  of  the 
efficient  machinery  for  the  country's  transportation.  Many  doubt 
it,  and  I  must  confess  that  when  I  went  down  the  Mississippi, 
last  summer,  and  traveled  for  miles  without  seeing  a  single  boat, 
I  was  inclined  to  doubt  it,  also.  There  were  a  few  tow-boats, 
but  the  river  towns  were  neglected,  the  wharves  rotting,  and  the 
river  fronts  largely  occupied  by  the  tracks  of  the  railroads,  whose 
trains  of  cars,  running  at  frequent  intervals  along  the  banks, 
showed  how  thoroughly  they  had  absorbed  the  commerce  of  the 
region. 

These  conditions  seemed  to  be  due  to  two  causes:  The  terrific 
competition  of  the  railroads,  which  have  made  a  practice  of  under- 
bidding the  waterways  during  the  navigation  season  and  afterward 
raising  their  rates ;  and  also  to  the  failure  of  the  government  to  pro- 
vide and  maintain  a  stable,  navigable  channel.  I  am  also  of  opinion 
that  the  railroads  have  been  somewhat  influential  in  obstructing  leg-  i 
islation  for  the  improvement  of  our  waterways,  but  I  believe  they 
now  see  that  this  was  a  mistaken  policy. 

I  have  no  doubt,  myself,  about  the  policy  of  restoring  the 
commerce  of  our  inland  waterways,  but  I  think  it  is  likely  to  be 
a  difficult  task.  One  difficulty  will  be  in  providing  facilities  for 
assembling  and  distributing  the  products  to  be  carried  on  the  rivers. 
The  terminal  facilities  at  the  towns  on  the  rivers  are  now  very 
poor,  when  they  are  not  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  railroads ; 
and  terminal  facilities  mean  little  in  themselves  unless  the  connec- 
ting lines  of  railroad  are  able  and  willing  to  take  goods  from  the 
waterways  and  distribute  them  in  the  interior.  The  railroads  have, 
as  one  of  the  chief  elements  of  their  strategic  strength,  the  ability 
to  assemble  commerce  in  every  part  of  the  country  and  to  carry 
it  on  cars  of  standard  gauge  to  any  other  part  of  the  country ; 
whereas  the  river  carriers  are,  at  present,  circumscribed  in  their 
efiforts  by  the  limits  of  the  rivers  themselves. 

It  is  therefore  necessary  that  the  railroads  shall  be  brought 
into  the  most  intimate  relations  with  the  river  carriers,  so  that  the 
one  system  will  supplement  and  aid,  not  injure,  the  other.  We  must 
'broaden  the  area  for  water  transportation,  also,  so  that  it  can  live, 
if  necessary,  upon  the  trade  of  the  towns  accessible  by  boat.  The 
Ohio  can  be  connected  by  canal  with  Lake  Erie,  the  Mississippi 
with  Lake  Michigan,  and  so  on;  and  wc  can  connect  the  entire 


^6  -The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

Mississippi  Valley,  the  Gulf  Coast,  and  the  Atlantic  Coast  with 
each  other  by  a  system  of  sheltered  waterways  along  the  gulf 
and  Atlantic  coasts,  such  as  was  so  ably  discussed  at  the  Philadel- 
phia conference,  consisting  of  bays,  sounds  and  rivers  to  be 
connected  with  each  other  by  canals,  such  as  the  contemplated 
canal  across  Florida  connecting  the  gulf  with  the  Atlantic  Coast, 
the  canal  connecting  the  Carolina  sounds  with  Chesapeake  Bay, 
the  canal  connecting  Chesapeake  Bay  with  the  Delaware  River, 
the  canal  connecting  the  Delaware  River  with  the  Raritan,  and  the 
canal  across  Cape  Cod,  thus  giving  a  sheltered  waterway  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi  to  Maine,  upon  which  it  is  possible  that 
boats  of  standard  draft  could  pass  from  Boston  down  the  Atlantic 
Coast,  across  Florida  to  the  Gulf  Coast,  and  up  the  Mississippi 
River  to  the  Great  Lakes.  If  these  things  were  done,  and  warfare 
between  the  railways  and  the  waterways  should  continue,  there 
would  still  be  sufficient  transportation,  without  the  distributing 
aid  of  the  railways,  to  constitute  a  very  influential  part  of  the 
commerce  of  the  country. 

But  it  will  scarcely  do  to  predicate  the  improvement  of  our 
waterways  upon  the  continuance  of  this  antagonism.  A  few  weeks 
ago  I  was  quoted  in  certain  Ohio  newspapers  as  saying  that  the 
appointment  of  the  Inland  Waterways  Commission  was  a  part  of 
the  "Big  Stick"  policy  of  the  President.  Besides  the  fact  that  I 
never  made  such  a  statement,  I  believe  the  contrary  to  be  the  fact, 
and  that  the  President,  like  the  commission,  is  working  for  greater 
harmony,  not  to  stir  up  antagonism,  between  the  different  transpor- 
tation systems  of  the  country.  My  own  view  is  that  the  waterway 
system  ought  to  be  largely  supplemental  to  the  railway  system  and 
that  it  may  possibly  become  necessary,  in  the  event  of  continued 
hostility  on  the  part  of  the  railways  toward  the  waterways,  to  en- 
force a  liberal  system  of  interchange  of  traffic  and  use  of  facilities 
between  the  two. 

Viewing  transportation  in  the  large,  it  is  of  the  highest  im- 
portance that  its  machinery  should  be  so  adjusted  that  the  common 
carrier  can  make  the  best  and  cheapest  possible  use,  in  the  interest 
of  the  public,  of  all  the  public  highways— of  river,  of  railway, 
and  of  ocean.  A  perfect  system  of  transportation  would  involve 
but  one  control  from  shipper  to  consignee,  and  our  aim  should 
be  a  system  that  will  create  great  corporate  carriers,  under  proper 


Use  and  Development  of  American  Waterzvays  $^ 

regulation  and  control,  owning  railway  lines  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Pacific  and  from  the  lakes  to  the  gulf,  owning  steamboat 
lines  on  the  rivers  and  lakes  wherever  practicable  and  economical, 
and  also  owning  great  lines  of  ocean  steamers,  so  that  rates  can 
be  made  and  goods  be  carried  from  any  point  in  this  country  to 
any  other  point  in  this  country,  or  to  a  foreign  country,  under  a 
single  control  and  at  a  single  rate,  and  that  rate  the  lowest  one 
consistent  with  good  service  and  reasonable  profit. 

Legislative  Requirements 

Having  said  this  much  upon  the  physical  requirements  of  the 
problem,  let  us  consider  what  legislation  is  necessary  in  order  to 
carry  the  undertaking  into  effect.  And  here  the  greatest  difference 
of  opinion  is  likely  to  exist ;  for  while  the  country  is  practically 
united  as  to  the  necessity  of  undertaking  the  work,  the  machinery 
for  setting  it  in  motion  has  not  been  carefully  considered  and  already 
there  is  divided  counsel.  It  has  been  thought  in  the  past  that 
our  government  was  incapable  of  engaging  successfully  in  any  great 
constructive  work.  This  belief  has  been  entirely  disproved  by  the 
great  works  begun  and  continued  under  the  direction  of  the  Recla- 
mation Service  and  the  Panama  Canal  Service.  In  the  legisla- 
tion inaugurated  for  these  public  works  Congress  very  wisely 
gave  a  free  hand  to  the  Executive,  with  the  result  that  by  a  process 
of  evolution  a  great  administrative  organization  has  been  built  up 
in  each  service,  that  has  been  conducted  on  thoroughly  business- 
like principles.  In  a  bill  which  I  have  recently  introduced  in  the 
Senate  (Senate  Bill  500),  I  have  endeavored  to  follow  that  bene- 
ficent legislation,  by  putting  the  whole  responsibility  for  the  devel- 
opment of  the  waterways  of  the  country  upon  the  Executive,  who- 
ever he  may  be,  conscious  that  we  will  never  have  a  dishonest  Exec- 
utive and  that  his  highest  pride  will  be  to  carry  out  successfully 
and  economically  the  great  charge  entrusted  to  him.  To  put  the 
Executive  in  a  legislative  strait-jacket  would  be  sure  to  result  in 
inefficiency  and  failure. 

Inland  Waterzuay  Fund 

The  most  important  feature  of  this  bill  is  the  creation  of  an 
inland  waterway  fund,  to  be  used  both  for  investigation  and  con- 
struction.    The  sum  of  fifty  million  dollars  is  by  the  bill  reserved 


58  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

and  set  aside  as  such  fund,  and  the  President  is  autliorized,  when- 
ever the  fund  is  reduced  below  twenty  miUion  dollars,  to  make 
up  the  deficiency  by  issuing  and  selling  bonds  up  to  the  amount 
of  fifty  million  dollars.  Thus  the  fund  is  always  kept  full,  even 
though  Congress  should  fail  to  make  appropriations.  The  Presi- 
dent is  authorized  to  have  examinations  and  surveys  made  for  the 
development  of  the  inland  waterways  of  the  country  and  for  the 
connection  of  such  rivers  with  each  other,  or  with  the  Great  Lakes, 
by  connecting  and  by  coastal  canals.  In  order  to  enable  the  Presi- 
dent to  make  such  examination  and  to  enter  upon  works  found  to 
be  practicable,  he  is  authorized  to  appoint  an  inland  waterways  com- 
mission, and  to  bring  in  co-ordination  therewith  the  scientific  ser- 
vices of  the  country,  such  as  the  Corps  of  Engineers  of  the  Army, 
the  Bureau  of  Soils,  the  Forest  Service,  the  Reclamation  service, 
and  the  Bureau  of  Corporations;  and  to  appoint  such  experts  and 
boards  in  connection  therewith  as  he  shall  deem  advisable;  and  to 
fix  their  salaries  until  the  same  are  fixed  by  Congress.  The  com- 
mission is  required  to  make  reports  to  the  President  and  to  Congress, 
or  to  either  body  of  Congress,  whenever  information  is  required. 

Construction 

The  next  question  is  as  to  construction.  Under  this  bill,  the 
President  is  authorized,  whenever  a  project  is  determined  by  the 
commission  to  be  feasible,  to  enter  upon  the  immediate  construction 
of  the  works  and  to  let  contracts  for  the  execution  of  the  same, 
in  whole  or  in  part;  the  only  limit  upon  his  power  being  that  the 
necessary  money  for  the  payment  of  the  contracts  must  be  in 
the  waterway  fund  when  any  such  contracts  are  let. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  initiative,  both  as  to  examination 
and  as  to  actual  construction,  is  put  in  the  hands  of  the  Executive 
Department  as  an  administrative  matter.  It  is  clear  that  the  judg- 
ment of  a  board  of  experts  will  be  very  much  better  than  that  of 
Congress  upon  such  matters,  and  that  much  delay  and  confusion 
will  be  saved  by  authorizing  the  prompt  initiation  of  the  work. 
Otherwise,  we  shall  have  difference  of  view,  both  in  committees 
and  in  Congress  itself,  as  to  the  details  of  the  work,  as  to  the 
relative  importance  of  the  projects,  and  sectional  differences  will 
arise,  only  to  be  compromised  by  concessions  harmful  to  this  great 
movement.     Congress  should  exercise  the  fullest  power  of  exam- 


Use  and  Development  of  American  Waterways  59 

ination  and  of  criticism,  and,  of  course,  it  has  the  power  at  any  time 
to  change  the  organization  or  to  stop  the  work.  All  these  powers 
should  be  exercised  whenever  wise  and  necessary ;  but  the  main 
purpose  of  the  bill  is  to  enter  upon  the  work  in  a  business-like  way,  • 
just  as  a  private  corporation  would  do,  and  not  to  impair 
its  proper  administration  by  unnecessary  legislative  restraints,  or  by 
the  breaks  and  interruptions  in  the  continuity  of  the  work  which 
have  proven  so  disastrous  heretofore  when  Congress  has  failed 
to  continue  to  make  the  necessary  appropriations. 

The  bill  also  provides  for  co-operation  with  states,  municipal- 
ities, communities,  corporations,  and  individuals  with  reference  to 
such  collateral  works  as  have  been  suggested,  and  for  an  equitable 
distribution  of  the  costs  and  benefits.  Wherever  practicable,  com- 
pensation to  the  fund  is  to  be  secured  by  the  conveyance  of  recla- 
mation rights,  the  lease  of  water  power,  and  such  other  means 
as  may  be  beneficial  to  the  states,  municipalities,  communities,  corpo- 
rations, or  individuals  aflfected.  Equitable  apportionment  of  the 
work  among  the  several  waterway  systems  of  the  country  is  also 
enjoined  bv  the  bill.  It  is  intended  that  work  shall  be  commenced 
contemporaneously  among  the  different  systems  of  the  country, 
so  that  no  section  may  feel  that  another  section  is  being  favored 
at  its  expense.  The  bill  is  tentative  in  its  nature  and  designed  to 
provoke  discussion  and  to  aid  in  the  framing  of  a  more  perfect 
measure. 

After  Construction,  What? 

After  these  waterways  are  developed  they  must,  of  course,  be 
freely  used  by  the  people ;  but  their  use  will  necessarily  involve  ] 
the  creation  of  common  carriers  under  laws  either  national  or  state. 
The  business  of  common  carriers  is  not,  in  these  days,  engaged 
in  by  individuals ;  the  creation  of  artificial  beings  called  corpora- 
tions is  necessary  for  this  purpose.  It  is  clear  that  the  transpor- 
tation of  these  waterway  carriers  will  be  interstate  and  foreign,! 
and  therefore  subject  to  national  regulation  and  control.  The 
nation  should  itself  create  these  corporations,  and  it  should  super- 
vise their  capitalization,  control  their  profits,  and  make  them  the 
obedient  servants  of  the  people.  At  the  same  time  it  should  pro- 
tect them  against  the  destructive  competition  of  the  railways.  The 
nation  ought  not  to  allow  one  public  servant  (the  railway  company) 


6o  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

to  destroy  another  public  servant  (the  waterway  company),  both 
engaged  in  conducting  traffic  on  the  pubHc  highways  of  the  coun- 
try. It  might,  in  order  to  encourage  the  operations  of  the  water- 
•  way  companies,  exempt  them  for  a  period,  as  national  instrumen- 
talities, from  taxation  either  national  or  state.  These  questions 
should  be  taken  hold  of  at  the  start  with  a  strong  hand  and  the 
organization  of  the  water  carriers  should  not  be  left  to  the  laws 
of  the  different  states.  We  should  not  drift  into  confusion  on  this 
subject  as  we  have  regarding  our  railways. 

National  Inrorporation  of  Carriers 

The  demand  for  national  action  as  to  water  transportation  will 
lead  to  national  action  regarding  rail  transportation  and  finally 
necessitate  the  creation  by  the  nation  of  the  corporations  which  are 
to  handle  both  classes  of  traffic.  We  must  begin  to  realize  that 
three-fourths  of  the  transportation  of  the  country  is  now  inter- 
state ;  that  our  railroad  systems  are  being  operated  regardless  of 
state  lines ;  that  regulation  by  the  individual  states  operating  here 
and  there  on  the  sections  of  these  great  systems  lying  within  their 
boundaries  is  disjointed,  illusive,  and  illogical ;  that  complexity, 
confusion,  and  insecurity,  both  to  investors  and  shippers,  are  the  re- 
sults of  the  present  system. 

The  truth  is,  we  have  not  yet  begun  to  think  or  act  scientific- 
ally on  this  subject,  but  have  allowed  ourselves  to  drift,  and  the 
present  railway  system  in  this  country  may  be  called  an  accidental 
growth.  The  first  railroads  were  built  from  a  point  in  one  state 
to  another  point  in  the  same  state,  and  their  commerce  was  at 
first  purely  state  commerce ;  but  the  railroad  corporations,  at  first 
organized  for  the  transportation  of  state  commerce,  gradually  de- 
veloped into  great  interstate  systems,  composed  of  many  railroads 
combined  under  the  laws  of  a  single  state,  and  that,  oftentimes, 
a  state  entirely  foreign  to  the  region  in  which  the  system  operates. 
In  this  way,  six  thousand  railroad  companies  gradually  came  into 
existence,  of  which  less  than  two  thousand  are  now  operating 
rdads,  the  others  having  been  merged  into  them ;  and  of  these 
two  thousand,  almost  the  entire  mileage — at  least  170,000  out  of 
a  total  of  220,000  miles — is  merged  in  eight  or  ten  great  systems. 
each  controlling  from  ten  to  fifteen  thousand  miles  of  track  and 
operating  in  from  ten  to  fifteen  different  states.     So  that  the  growth 


Use  and  Development  of  American   IVaterzvays  6l 

which  began  as  a  purely  state  growth  became,  by  a  process  of 
evokition,  a  national  growth ;  and  it  is  no  longer  a  question  whether 
the  railroads  shall  be  nationalized — for  they  long  ago  nationalized 
themselves,— but  merely  a  question  whether  we  shall  continue  to 
permit  the  lesser  sovereignties  to  assume  the  function  which  the 
nation  has  neglected  of  creating  its  own  agents  for  the  transporta- 
tion of  interstate  and  foreign  commerce. 

The  National  Pozvers 

We  cannot  take  the  broad  view  of  the  powers  of  the  national 
government  as  relating  to  waterways  and  carriers  by  water  and 
refuse  to  recognize  those  powers  as  relating  to  railways  and  carriers 
by  rail.  It  is  curious  how  united  public  sentiment  is  as  to  the 
national  control  of  the  waterways  and  how  divided  it  seems  to  be 
as  to  a  similar  control  of  the  railways. 

We  have  now  forty-six  sovereign  states,  each  absolutely  sov- 
ereign in  all  matters  of  local  legislation,  and  each  absolutely  subject 
to  another  sovereign,  the  Union  of  the  States,  as  to  all  matters 
entrusted  by  the  Constitution  to  that  Union.  The  main  purposes 
of  creating  this  sovereignty  called  the  United  States,  were  two : 
The  national  defense,  and  the  regulation  of  interstate  and  foreign 
commerce.  The  regulation  of  interstate  and  foreign  commerce 
involves  necessarily  the  selection  of  the  instrumentalities  of  that 
commerce,  and  necessarily,  also,  the  selection  of  the  public  servants 
that  are  to  engage  in  such  transportation.  The  nation  should 
itself  create  the  great  corporations  which  are  to  engage  in  inter- 
state transportation  by  both  water  and  rail.  The  reason  the  nation  \ 
should  frame  the  incorporation  act  under  which  great  mergers  \ 
are  to  be  made  is  that  we  must  prevent  over-capitalization  and  we  ' 
must  limit  their  profits.  If  the  nation  is  to  permit  a  state  to  create 
the  public  agents  which  are  to  do  the  nation's  business,  it  should 
control  the  legislation  of  that  state ;  and  that,  of  course,  is  neither 
desirable  nor  possible. 

The  purpose  of  the  constitution  was  not  to  centralize  govern- 
ment, but  to  unionize  government,  where  the  general  welfare  was 
affected.  We  unionized  the  quarantine,  because  we  realized  that 
disease  had  no  respect  for  state  lines  ;  we  unionized  irrigation,  be- 
cause nature  failed  to  place  the  rivers  entirely  within  state  bounda- 
ries ;  we  unionized  banking,  because  the  interest  of  the  entire  people 


62  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

required  one  money,  a  common  denominator  acceptable  everywhere, 
and  a  system  of  exchange  inviting  universal  confidence.  And  all 
the  reasons  which  led  to  the  unionizing  of  these  functions  of  gov- 
ernment in  the  past  exist  in  far  greater  and  stronger  degree,  at  this 
time,  with  reference  to  the  unionizing  of  the  subject  of  transpor- 
tation. We  have  just  reached  the  threshold  of  this  great  question, 
and  it  is  very  important  that  we  shall  start  right  by  the  nation's 
creating  its  own  public  agents,  and  not  permitting  an  inferior 
sovereignty  to  do  so. 

Mergers  Necessary 

We  should  drop  excitement,  reprisal,  and  retaliation,  and  get 
down  to  the  question  whether  these  mergers  shall  be  broken  up 
and  resolved  into  their  original  elements  of  purely  state  railroads. 
or  whether  consolidation,  properly  controlled,  shall  be  permitted. 
[  I  think  all  thoughtful  men  will  agree  that  the  mergers  of  the 
'railways  are  necessary  to  the  proper  development  of  the  transpor- 
tation system  of  the  country,  and  that  the  fullest  powers  of  combi- 
nation should  be  exercised,  under  proper  restraint  as  to  capitaliza- 
tion, rates,  and  profits.  To  break  up  these  mergers  and  resolve 
them  into  their  integral  parts,  bounded  and  circumscribed  in  their 
operations  by  state  lines,  would  be  a  national  calamity,  if  it  could 
be  done,  as  grievous  to  the  public  as  to  the  railroads.  Leaving 
out  of  consideration,  for  the  present,  the  combination  of  competing 
lines,  these  mergers  have  been  of  immense  service  to  the  country, 
although  the  machinery  for  bringing  them  about  has  been  most 
complicated.  The  thing  complained  of  is  not  the  fact  of  combi- 
nation, but  the  methods  of  combination,  unrestrained  by  adequate 
laws  and  fruitful  of  over-capitalization,  frauds  on  stockholders  and 
frauds  on  shippers. 

It  is  a  universal  experience  that  whenever  the  laws  of  a 
country  do  not  meet  its  economic  requirements  the  people  will 
violate  the  laws  or  evade  them.  That  is  what  has  occurred  in  the 
case  of  the  railroads.  The  ingenuity  of  all  the  corporation  lawyers 
of  the  country  has  been  exercised  in  order  to  promote  the  combi- 
nation of  single  roads  into  systems.  Although  these  combinations 
were  absolutely  essential  to  the  best  developm,ent  of  the  countrv, 
the  railroads  were  obliged,  in  order  to  accomplish  them,  to  evade 
the  laws.     This  is  as  much  responsible  for  the  spirit  of  lawlessness 


Use  and  Dcvclopjiicnt  of  American   IVatcrzvays  63 

ill  the  management  of  the  transportation  interests  of  the  country 
as  any  other  one  thing ;  and  I  am  sure  that,  if  this  condition  exists 
(and  I  fear  we  must  all  admit  that  it  does),  we,  the  lawmakers 
cannot  escape  our  share  of  responsibility. 

The  railway  is  merely  the  agent  of  the  government— the  agent 
of  the  state  as  to  purely  state  commerce  and  the  agent  of  the  nation 
as  to  interstate  and  foreign  commerce;  and  the  government  has 
the  power  to  fix  the  compensation,  in  the  shape  of  rates  on  freight 
or  the  rate  of  dividend  which  the  agent  shall  receive  on  his  invest- 
ment. It  can  fix  this  compensation  in  the  form  of  tolls,  or  it  can 
fix  it  in  gross,  and  all  that  it  must  avoid  is  legislation  of  a  confis- 
catory nature.  I  think,  therefore,  the  reasoning  is  conclusive  that, 
inasmuch  as  the  state  can  legislate  only  for  state  commerce,  it 
cannot  legislate  and  ought  not  to  attempt  to  legislate  upon  this 
o-reat  question  of  merger,  which  is  only  entered  upon  for  the 
purpose  of  promoting  interstate  and  foreign  commerce;  but  that 
this  can  only  be  wisely  accomplished  by  the  action  of  the  Congress 
of  the  United  States,  in  which  every  state  in  the  Union  is  repre- 
sented  and  in  which  every  citizen  has  a  voice  and  vote. 

I  am  more  and  more  impressed  with  the  importance  of  the 
whole  problem  and  with  the  necessity  of  preparing  a  broad  and 
comprehensive  plan  for  the  improvement  of  our  waterways  and 
also  for  their  co-ordination  with  the  railway  system  of  the  country. 
Such  a  system  of  waterways,  involving  ultimately  the  highest  de- 
velopment of  forestry,  of  irrigation,  of  swamp  land  reclamation, 
of  clarification  of  streams,  and  of  bank  protection  as  efficient  means 
of  maintaining  a  channel  for  navigation,  would  relieve  vastly  the 
existing  congestion  of  transportation.  The  perfection  of  the  trans- 
portation system  of  the  country  will,  in  my  judgment,  involve  the 
creation  bv  the  nation  of  common  carriers  which  will  own  not  only 
crreat  trunk  lines  of  railway,  but  also  lines  of  steamers  on  the  lakes 
The  rivers  and  the  ocean.  Combination  is  an  essential  part  of 
the  economic  development  of  transportation.  A  perfect  system 
involves,  as  far  as  possible,  one  control  from  shipper  to  consignee; 
and  this  can  only  be  accomplished  by  great  transportation  lines 
operating  regardless  of  state  or  national  boundaries,  which  will 
utilize  the  railways,  the  rivers,  and  the  ocean,  by  methods  of  car- 
riage adapted  to  each. 


64  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

A  Comprehensive  Measure 

It  is  with  such  considerations  in  view,  and  for  the  purpose 
of  effectually  co-ordinating  the  transportation  interests  of  the  coun- 
try, both  waterway  and  railway,  that  I  have  introduced  in  the 
present  Congress  another  measure  known  as  Senate  Bill  No.  499. 
In  framing  this  act,  I  have  not  urged  the  national  incorporation 
of  all  railways,  many  of  which  lie  entirely  within  the  boundaries 
of  a  single  state,  but  confine  it  simply  to  the  construction  of  inter- 
state railroads  and  to  the  combination  of  interstate  railroads,  already 
constructed,  into  great  systems.  As  to  existing  roads,  this  can 
only  be  done  with  the  acquiescence  of  the  states.  Some  states 
might  attempt  to  withhold  their  consent,  but  they  would,  in  my 
opinion,  soon  yield  when  they  found  themselves  outstripped  by 
their  more  obliging  neighbors.  There  are  other  ways  of  proceed- 
ing, but  I  should  prefer  persuasion  to  anything  savoring  of  force ; 
and  when  I  speak  of  force,  I  do  not,  of  course,  mean  actual  coercion 
or  the  violation  of  the  sovereignty  of  any  state,  but  the  prevention, 
j  for  instance,  of  any  corporation  not  under  national  charter  from 
engaging  in  interstate  transportation — a  course  unquestionably 
within  the  power  of  the  nation. 

The  bill  provides  for  the  incorporation,  under  national  law, 
of  carriers,  whether  by  rail  or  by  water,  engaged  in  interstate  and 
foreign  transportation,  with  a  provision  for  the  acquisition,  with 
the  consent  of  the  states  affected,  of  state-incorporated  roads  now 
in  existence.  The  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  is  given  full 
control  over  the  capitalization,  rates,  dividends,  and  other  incidents 
of  the  operation  of  such  corporations.  When  promoters  desire  to 
construct  a  new  line  of  interstate  railroad,  or  to  combine  old  lines 
into  one  system,  they  will  be  brought  before  this  body  of  the  highest 
intelligence,  character,  and  efificiency,  and  present  their  plan ;  the 
amount  of  bonds  they  are  to  issue  and  the  rate  of  interest,  the 
amount  of  preferred  stock  and  the  rate  of  interest,  the  amount  of 
common  stock  and  the  rate  of  interest,  and  the  expenses  of  promo- 
tion ;  and,  upon  the  approval  of  the  commission,  the  consent  of 
the  nation  will  be  given  only  after  the  most  careful  scrutiny  and 
consideration  and  the  genuineness  of  the  whole  transaction  vised 
by  the  government  itself. 

The  bill  also  lavs  down  a  uniform  method  of  taxation  bv  the 


Use  and  Development  of  American  Waterways  65 

states,  and  one  per  cent  of  the  gross  receipts  is  set  aside  annually  as 
a  special  fund  in  the  treasury  of  the  United  States  for  an  insurance 
fund  to  the  employees  of  the  railroads  against  accident  and  liability. 
Dividends  in  any  one  year  are  limited  to  7  per  cent,  except  with 
the  consent  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  and  any 
surplus  goes  to  the  betterment  of  the  roads,  or  to  a  guaranty  fund 
against  future  inadequacy  of  earnings  for  dividends,  or  to  extra 
dividends  if  the  commission  consents.  In  fixing  rates  and  divi- 
dends, the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  are  directed  to  have 
regard,  as  far  as  possible,  to  the  maintenance  of  the  par  value  of 
the  stock.  There  is  a  provision  for  the  Interstate  Commerce  Com- 
mission to  act  as  a  board  of  conciliation  in  the  settlement  of  dis- 
putes between  the  railroads  and  their  employees,  on  questions  of 
hours,  and  of  conditions  and  compensation  of  labor.  It  is  stipulated 
that  there  shall  be  no  interference  with  the  local  police  regulations 
of  the  states,  or  with  their  regulation  of  purely  state  traffic,  or  with 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  state  courts. 

We  welcome,  therefore,  the  national  consideration  of  all  these 
questions  relating  to  the  inland  waterw^ays,  because  it  opens  up 
the  greater  question  of  transportation,  regardless  of  state  lines,  by 
both  rail  and  water,  and  because  its  very  consideration  will  bring 
about  a  fuller  exercise  of  the  granted  powers  of  the  constitution. 
It  seems  to  me  peculiarly  fortunate  that  this  question  of  the  im- 
provement of  the  inland  waterways  has  come  up  and  arrested  pub- 
lic attention  as  it  has  done,  because,  once  public  opinion  is  created, 
legislation  will  speedily  follow.  The  whole  question  of  transpor- 
tation in  all  its  branches  will  be  opened  up  and  intelligently  dis- 
cussed, and  we  may  be  able  to  incorporate  in  our  legislation  regard- 
ing the  waterways  some  much  needed  legislation  relating  to  the 
national  incorporation  of  carriers  whether  by  water  or  rail  or  both, 
and  thus  weaken  the  opposition  of  those  who  would  prevent  the 
co-ordination  of  the  whole  matter  comprehensively,  by  indicating 
to  them  that  the  national  powers  regarding  interstate  and  foreign 
transportation  will  not  be  exercised  piecemeal  or  with  reference 
to  the  one  class  of  transportation  and  not  with  reference  to  the 
other. 

If  a  proper  system  were  created,  most  of  the  evils  now  com- 
plained of  would  disappear.  A  system  of  transportation  could  be 
easily  devised  which  would  enlist  the  best  powers  of  the  national 


66  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

government  without  infringing  at  all  upon  the  powers  of  the  states 
— one  which  would  protect  alike  the  railway  investor,  the  railway 
employee,  the  shipper  and  the  public  in  their  respective  rights,  and 
at  the  same  time  protect  the  states  in  all  their  legitimate  powers, 
and  change  the  hostility  of  the  railways  toward  the  waterways  into 
friendliness  and  co-operation,  in  the  interest  of  the  entire  people. 


THE  DELAWARE  RIVER 


By  Hon.  J.  Hampton  Moore, 

Member   of   Congress,  Third   District,   Pennsylvania,   and   President   Atlantic 
Deeper  Waterways  Association. 


The  Delaware  River  is  a  great  waterway  which,  one  hundred 
years  ago,  fttrnished  ample  means  of  communication  between  the 
chief  commercial  city  in  America  and  the  sea.  Upon  the  banks 
of  the  Delaware  were  erected  the  great  shipyards  of  the  country. 
In  colonial  days,  during  the  Revolutionary  War,  after  the  nation 
had  been  founded,  and  since  that  time,  to  and  including  the  present 
day,  the  Delaware  has  been  the  American  Clyde,  and  although  com- 
merce has  been  largely  diverted  to  other  ports  than  Philadelphia, 
the  Delaware  has  remained  the  shipbuilding  center  of  the  Atlantic 
seaboard.  But  it  has  not  continued  to  furnish  ample  means  of 
communication  between  Philadelphia  and  the  sea.  That  has  been 
one  of  the  reasons  (but  only  one)  why  commerce  has  been  di- 
verted to  other  ports.  When  the  ships  of  commerce  drew  no 
more  than  eighteen  or  twenty  feet  of  water,  they  could  reach  the 
docks  of  Philadelphia  through  the  natural  waterway  almost  as 
readily  as  they  could  reach  the  docks  of  New  York,  but  when  the 
draft  of  merchant  ships  was  increased  to  twenty-five,  or  thirty- 
five  feet,  shoals  in  the  Delaware  prevented  access  to  the  port 
at  low  tide  and  resultant  delays  compelled  the  larger  and  more 
economical  ships  to  trade  at  ports  where  fewer  obstructions  were 
encountered. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  remove  the  obstructions,  thus 
restoring  the  conditions  of  equal  competition  under  which  Phila- 
delphia was  for  a  time  the  leading  commercial  city  of  the  country, 
but  in  their  results  they  have  not  kept  pace  with  the  growth  in 
the  size  of  merchant  ships.  The  30-foot  channel  in  the  Dela- 
ware is  to  be  completed  in  June,  1908,  but  there  is  already 
uro-ent  need  for  a  35-foot  channel  and  before  that  can  be  com- 
pleted a  40-foot  channel  will  probably  be  required  owing  to 
the  increase  in  the  draft  of  vessels.  The  national  government 
has  done  a  great  deal  towards  the  improvement  of  the  Delaware 

(67) 


68  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

River.  Pennsylvania  and  Philadelphia  have  liberally  supplemented 
the  work  of  the  Federal  authorities,  and  yet  much  remains  to  be 
accomplished. 

The  importance  of  the  work  is  not  to  be  measured  by  the 
commercial  interests  of  Philadelphia.  The  deeper  channel  is  needed 
not  only  for  the  purposes  of  commerce,  but  to  enable  the  great 
shipyards  on  the  Delaware  to  send  their  products  to  the  sea  and 
to  make  available  to  the  modern  American  battleship  the  greatest 
fresh-water  naval  station,  dry  dock,  and  repair  shop  on  the  Atlantic 
coast.  The  nation's  interest  in  the  improvement  of  the  Delaware 
is  superior  to  that  of  the  City  of  Philadelphia,  and  will  become  a 
controlling  interest  if  the  deep  waterway  project  should  result  in 
the  construction  of  an  interior  line  for  the  movement  of  battleships 
along  the  coast — a  project  of  which  the  Delaware  River  will  be  the 
most  important  link. 

Starting  with  the  Delaware  River  as  an  adequate  means  of 
communication  between  Philadelphia  and  the  sea,  as  it  was  a  cen- 
tury ago,  and  indeed  down  to  about  1850,  let  us  see  what  has  been 
done  to  improve  it  in  order  to  keep  measurable  pace  with  the 
demands  of  commerce.  The  head  of  navigation  is  at  Trenton, 
where  natural  falls  limit  the  tidal  flow.  The  river  there  is  very 
shallow  and  no  considerable  depth  is  found  north  of  Philadelphia. 
In  front  of  the  city  there  were  flat  islands  which  diverted  the 
channel.  From  the  city  southward  to  deep  water  in  the  bay,  bars, 
flats  and  rocky  ledges  obstructed  the  channel  to  some  extent  for 
considerable  stretches,  but  even  at  these  points  the  depth  at  mean 
low  water  was  from  seventeen  to  twenty  feet,  so  that  no  great 
need  for  dredging  operations  appeared  until  after  the  Civil  War. 
Here,  as  elsewhere,  prior  to  1867,  few  attempts  were  made  to  im- 
prove natural  waterways  except  to  meet  local  demands,  and  as 
a  consequence  the  first  efiforts  to  improve  the  Delaware  River  were 
made  on  the  river  above  Philadelphia.  As  early  as  1836  the  United 
States  Government  expended  $15,000  in  making  a  channel  through 
Perriwig  bar,  where  the  depth  of  water  was  originally  only  three 
to  six  feet.  The  next  appropriations  (1872  and  1873)  were  also 
for  improvements  in  the  upper  Delaware  where  depths  of  only 
eight  to  nine  feet  have  been  obtained.  Attention  was  then  turned 
to  the  lower  Delaware,  and  a  little  work  was  done  each  year,  but 
a  quarter  of  a  century  elapsed  before  appropriations  were  made 
large  enough  to  do  much  more  than  maintain  the  natural  channel. 


The  Delaware  River  69 

In  1885  a  board  was  convened  to  prepare  plans  for  a  channel 
from  Philadelphia  to  the  sea  600  feet  wide  and  26  feet  deep ;  and  in 
1899  another  board  was  appointed  "to  revise  the  plans  for  improv- 
ing the  Delaware  from  Trenton  to  its  mouth."  Several  other  boards 
have  been  convened  to  pass  upon  particular  problems,  and  the  work 
has  been  in  charge  of  a  dozen  different  engineers  in  the  course  of 
thirty-seven  years.  It  is  quite  natural  that  under  such  adminis- 
tration, mistakes  should  have  been  made,  plans  changed,  costly  work 
sacrificed  and  less  good  accomplished  than  was  expected.  This  was 
not  necessarily  the  fault  of  the  engineers,  who  until  recent  years 
were  always  hampered  by  insufficient  appropriations.  The  Dela- 
ware has,  nevertheless,  been  greatly  improved.  At  only  two  places 
is  there  now  a  less  depth  than  thirty  feet  at  mean  low  water,  and 
the  thirty-foot  channel  from  Philadelphia  to  the  sea  will  be  com- 
pleted in  June,  1908.  From  1885  to  1899  all  appropriations  were 
applied  to  the  26- foot  project,  and  since  March  3,  1899,  all  appro- 
priations have  been  applied  to  the  thirty-foot  project. 

From  1836  to  1899  less  than  $2,000,000  had  been  expended  on 
the  improvement  of  the  Delaware,  and  the  results  accomplished 
were  the  forming  of  a  channel  not  less  than  7^  feet  deep  between 
Bordentown  and  Philadelphia,  and  of  a  channel  not  less  than  20 
feet  deep  between  Philadelphia  and  the  sea.  In  March,  1888,  a 
resolution  was  approved  providing  for  the  appointment  of  a  board 
of  engineers  to  report  upon  the  river  between  Philadelphia  and 
Camden,  and  the  report  of  this  board  led  to  a  very  great  improve- 
ment of  the  harbor.  The  report  recommended  the  forming  of  a 
deep  channel  2,000  feet  wide  along  the  city's  front  at  such  a  dis- 
tance from  the  then  wharf  line  as  would  permit  an  extension  of 
wharves,  and  the  widening  of  Delaware  avenue.  The  plan  involved 
the  entire  removal  of  Windmill  and  Smith's  Island  and  their 
adjacent  shoals  and  the  cutting  off  of  a  part  of  Petty 's  Island.  To 
accomplish  this  purpose  the  islands  were  bought  at  a  cost,  includ- 
ing legal  expenses,  of  $708,000,  the  state  paying  $200,000,  the  City 
of  Philadelphia  $208,000  and  the  national  government  $300,000.  A 
necessary  part  of  the  work  was  the  extension  of  the  wharves  of 
Philadelphia  and  Camden  so  as  to  narrow  the  channel  and  produce 
the  scour  required  for  its  maintenance.  The  city  and  the  Girard 
estate  greatly  aided  in  this  work,  which  was  completely  successful 
and  brought  about  a  marked  improvement  of  the  river  front. 


70  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

The  river  and  harbor  act  of  March  3,  1899,  provided  for  the 
formation  of  a  channel  600  feet  wide  and  30  feet  deep  to  extend 
from  Christian  Street  wharf,  Philadelphia,  to  deep  water  in  the 
bay,  at  an  estimated  cost  of  $5,810,000.  This  marked  the  beginning 
of  liberal  appropriations  for  the  improvement  of  the  Delaware, 
and  the  contemplated  work  is  now  approaching  completion.  Besides 
its  appropriations  for  harbor  improvements,  the  City  of  Philadelphia 
has  expended  $685,000  on  improvements  of  the  Delaware  River, 
and  in  1905  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  and  city  appropriated  smiis 
aggregating  $750,000  for  dredging  operations  between  Philadelphia 
and  the  state  line. 

The  work  of  dredging  undertaken  by  the  city  and  the  state 
would  have  been  done  in  time  by  the  Federal  Government,  but  the 
purpose  of  city  and  state  appropriations  was  to  expedite  the  im- 
provements. There  was  a  strong  desire  to  begin  work  this  year 
on  a  35-foot  project,  and  to  that  end  it  was  proposed  that  surveys 
be  made  at  once  and  plans  prepared  for  the  new  work.  But,  fol- 
lowing precedent,  the  river  and  harbor  committee  refused  to  begin 
a  new  project  until  the  30- foot  channel  should  be  completed. 

The  present  condition  is  that  a  channel  8  to  9  feet  in  depth  has 
been  established  between  Bordentown  and  Philadelphia,  a  chan- 
nel not  less  than  26  feet  deep  along  the  city  front,  and  a  channel  30 
feet  deep  from  the  lower  part  of  Philadelphia  to  the  sea.  Under 
the  26- foot  project  the  government  expended  nearly  $600,000  for 
dikes,  and  under  the  30-foot  project  nearly  $1,000,000  for  bulk- 
heads. In  1829  work  was  begun  upon  the  breakwater,  and  con- 
tinued until  1898,  at  which  time  its  cost  had  reached  $615,036.  In 
1897  the  National  Harbor  of  Refuge  was  begun,  and  up  to  1901 
near  two  and  a  half  million  dollars  had  been  expended  on  this 
project.  In  addition  to  all  this,  the  government  has  provided  an 
excellent  system  of  lighting  the  river. 

The  expenditures  by  the  United  States  Government  on  account 
of  improvements  to  the  Delaware  River,  including  the  Delaware 
Breakwater  and  the  Harbor  of  Refuge,  have  amounted  to  nearly 
$12,000,000.  Philadelphia  and  Pennsylvania  have  added  $1,500,000 
to  the  expenditures  for  deeper  waterways  alone.  More  than  one- 
half  of  the  whole  amount  has  becMi  spent  on  the  30-foot  project, 
from  which  it  appears  that  the  bulk  of  the  work  has  been  done  in 
the  last  five  years. 


The  Delaware  River  71 

The  Schuylkill  River,  the  chief  tributary  of  the  Delaware, 
runs  through  the  city  and  empties  into  the  Delaware  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  city.  It  is  navigable  for  only  a  few  miles,  but  is  a 
stream  of  great  importance  to  the  commerce  of  the  city.  League 
Island,  which  was  presented  by  the  city  to  the  government  to  be 
used  as  a  naval  station  and  navy  yard,  is  a  large  island  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Schuylkill.  Here  the  government  has  spent  mil- 
lions of  dollars  in  reclaiming  land,  in  the  construction  of  work 
shops,  in  the  building  of  a  great  dry  dock,  recently  completed,  and 
in  dredging  operations.  It  has  treated  the  Schuylkill,  however, 
as  a  local  stream,  except  for  its  own  purposes,  and  the  improvement 
of  that  river,  which  is  capable  of  being  made  an  important  factor  in 
the  commerce  of  the  port,  will  probably  have  to  be  done  at  the 
expense  of  the  city  and  state.  The  government,  however,  may  aid 
to  keep  the  mouth  of  the  Schuylkill  open  for  vessels  of  large  draft, 
for  the  naval  station  at  League  Island  is  capable  of  being  made  one 
of  the  finest  in  the  world.  It  is  secure  from  attack,  surrounded  by 
fresh  water,  and  within  the  limits  of  a  great  city  which  can  at  any 
time  supply  an  army  of  skilled  workmen  and  supplies  of  all  kinds, 
for  making  repairs  or  building  ships. 

The  one  defect,  the  want  of  a  channel  to  the  sea  sufficiently 
deep  to  float  the  larger  vessels  of  the  navy,  will  be  removed  by  the 
completion  next  year  of  the  30-foot  channel,  for  the  rise  of 
tide  in  the  Delaware  is  six  feet,  and  by  taking  advantage  of  the  tides 
vessels  drawing  more  than  thirty  feet  can  reach  the  city.  In 
time  of  peace,  naval  vessels  can  afford  to  wait  for  the  tide,  but  there 
are  few  that  cannot  now  reach  League  Island  at  any  stage  of  water. 
It  is,  of  course,  desirable  that  the  channel  should  be  further  deep- 
ened, first  to  thirty-five  feet  and  then  to  forty,  because  merchant 
ships  cannot  afford  to  be  delayed;  but  for  uses  of  the  navy,  the 
Delaware  now   meets   ordinary   requirements. 

As  a  link  in  the  chain  of  deep  water  ways  from  Boston  to 
Beaufort,  the  Delaware  is  of  first  importance.  Its  30-foot  chan- 
nel from  Philadelphia  to  deep  water  in  Delaware  Bay  will  be  ample 
until  other  links  in  the  chain  have  been  completed  and  by  that  time 
it  will  have  been  further  deepened.  The  proposed  Delaware  and 
Chesapeake  ship  canal  will  at  once  put  Philadelphia  in  communica- 
tion with  numerous  important  points  on  Chesapeake  Bay  and  its 
tributaries.      The   extension    northward   to   Raritan   Bay   involves 


72 


The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 


not  only  the  building  of  a  ship  canal,  but  extensive  improvements 
in  the  river  itself,  for  the  channel  north  of  Philadelphia  is  only 
nine  feet  deep  the  greater  part  of  the  way  to  Bordentown.  South- 
ward from  Philadelphia  to  whatever  point  may  be  selected  as  the 
outlet  to  the  Delaware  and  Chesapeake  Canal,  the  Delaware  River 
is  already  an  ample  water  way  for  the  purposes  of  the  proposed 
continuous  inland  route.  The  immediate  demand  is  for  the  com- 
pletion of  the  30- foot  channel  from  Philadelphia  to  the  sea; 
then  for  a  survey  for  thirty-five  feet  which  is  necessary  to  accom- 
modate vessels  of  increased  draft.  The  30-foot  channel  is  now 
assured,  and  it  is  believed  that  an  awakened  public  sentiment 
will  soon  induce  Congress  to  grant  the  survey  for  the  additional 
five  feet.  All  signs  point  to  an  improvement  in  the  conditions  sur- 
rounding the  Delaware  River.  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania  and 
Delaware  are  aroused  to  the  importance  of  developing  the  stream 
for  enlarged  navigation,  and  the  naval  authorities  are  interested 
because  of  the  great  public  value  and  strategic  importance  of  the 
fresh  water  repair  station  at  League  Island. 


ENGINEERING  FEATURES  OF  CHESAPEAKE  AND  DELA- 
WARE, AND  NORFOLK-BEAUFORT  WATERWAYS^ 


By  Major  C.  A.  F.  Flagler, 

Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army. 


The  waterway  from  Boston  to  Beaufort  Inlet  has  many  links 
partially  constructed:  the  Cape  Cod  Canal,  the  Delaware  ana  Rari- 
lan  Canal,  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Canal,  the  Dismal  Swamp 
and  Albemarle  and  Chesapeake  canals  paralleling  each  other,  and 
the  Core  Creek  cut  now  being  made  by  the  government  from  Beau- 
fort Harbor  to  Pamlico  Sound.  All  of  these,  however,  are  for  a 
generally  shallow  draft  commerce,  ten  feet  at  low  water  being 
about  the  prevailing  depth.  They  are  what  may  be  termed  barge 
canals.  The  great  Atlantic  waterways  that  we  are  discussing  in- 
clude this  inland  chain  of  artificial  channels  and  also  great  natural 
channels  such  as  Long  Island  Sound,  the  Delaware  and  Chesapeake 
bays.  All  of  these  large  natural  waters  are  being  made  navigable 
by  the  general  government  for  ships  of  the  largest  draft  and  the 
connecting  artificial  channels  should  offer  in  the  near  future  equal 
advantages.    There  should  be  no  weak  links  in  the  chain. 

The  Tivo  JVafcrzvays 
The  Norfolk-Beaufort  waterway  has  its  southern  terminus  at 
Beaufort  Inlet,  N.  C,  passes  by  a  land  cut,  utilizing  Core  Creek, 
into  the  waters  of  Pamlico  Sound,  thence  through  Croatan  Sound 
it  passes  into  and  crosses  Albemarle  Sound,  and  thence,  utilizing 
small  sounds  and  rivers,  it  passes  into  Norfolk  Harbor  through  the 
Elizabeth  River.  Funds  were  partially  appropriated  in  the  last 
river  and  harbor  act  of  Congress,  and  work  is  now  in  progress  on 
the  southern  end  of  the  waterway.  This  waterway  is  intended  only 
for  light  draft  traffic,  mainly  towed  barges.  Its  main  advantages 
are,  that  it  opens  up  to  water  transportation  the  productive  section 
of  eastern  North  Carolina,  and  offers  a  safe  inland  passage  for  the 
smaller  coastwise  boats  by  dangerous  Cape  Hatteras.  The  two 
private  canals  referred  to,  the  Dismal  Swamp  Canal  and  the  Albe- 

>A  paper  read  before  the  Atlantic  Deeper  Waterways  Conference.  Philadelphia.  November 
19,  1907. 

(73) 


74  The  Aiiiials  of  the  American  Aeademy 

marie  and   Cheasapeake   Canal,  now   furnish  light  draft  channels 
from  Norfolk  Harbor  into  Albemarle  Sound. 

The  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Canal  route  reported  upon  to 
Congress  is  that  of  the  present  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Canal, 
from  Delaware  City,  Delaware,  to  Chesapeake  City,  Maryland. 
This  route  has  been  carefully  surveyed  and  investigated  by  borings, 
and  estimates  submitted  for  ship  channels  of  thirty-five  and  thirty- 
foot  depths.  These  deeper  canals  lengthen  the  present  artificial 
waterway  by  several  miles  of  channel  which  must  be  dredged  on 
the  shallow  foreshore  of  the  Delaware  River,  and  in  the  waters  of 
Back  Creek,  Elk  River,  and  Chesapeake  Bay. 

The  Terrene 

The  country  in  which  these  waterways  lie  is  practically  of  the 
same  formation  from  northern  New  Jersey  to  any  point  on  the 
South  Atlantic  coast  that  may  be  selected  for  an  ocean  terminus. 
The  terrene  is  the  great  Atlantic  coast  plain  about  lOO  miles  wide, 
measured  inland  from  the  shore  and  extending  out  under  the  ocean 
for  fifty  to  one  hundred  miles  to  the  edge  of  the  Continental  plateau. 
It  consists  of  rock  of  the  tertiary  period  covered  from  thirty  to  two 
hundred  feet  deep  wath  glacial  drift,  and  broken  at  intervals  by 
the  deep  gorges  that  were  once  the  beds  of  the  great  glaciers  of 
the  Delaware,  the  Susquehanna,  the  Hudson,  and  others.  Along 
the  ocean  shores  this  soil  is  supplemented  by  the  sand  brought  down 
by  wave  action  from  the  rocks  of  older  geologic  formation  abutting 
on  the  coast  in  New  England.  Nova  Scotia,  Newfoundland  and 
Labrador.  All  of  this  drift  and  sand  is  easily  moved  and  molded 
by  the  forces  of  nature.  The  shore  line  is  universally  of  sand,  and 
generally  the  ocean  shore  is  merely  a  narrow  cordon  of  sand  separat- 
ing the  ocean  from  the  chain  of  inland  waters.  At  places,  this  cor- 
don is  in  two  or  even  three  distinct  lines.  I  am  indebted  to  a  paper 
by  Major  Cassius  E.  Gillette^  for  the  following  theory  of  the  forma- 
tion of  these  cordons,  given  only  in  part : 

The  sand  driven  shoreward  (by  the  waves)  up  the  gentle  slope  of  the 
Atlantic  Continental  shelf  gradually  formed  itself  into  an  under  water  ridge 
parallel  to  the  shore  line.  As  it  approached  the  surface,  it  was  washed 
down  by  the  ebb  tide.  This  washing  was  irregular  as  to  amount  and  loca- 
tion, and  ultimately  the  tidal  escape  was  through  low  places,  gradually 
washed  deeper  while  the  waves,  unopposed,  built  the  intervening  stretches 
into  sand  islands,  and  the  low  places  became  entrances  into  sounds  or  bays. 

'Sea  Coast  Harbors  in  the  U.  S.,  International  I'.nnineering  Congress,  St.  Louis,  1904. 


Engineering   Features   of  Inland    Waterways  75 

A  shore  formed  in  this  way  naturally  enclosed  only  shallow 
.agoons ;  but  some  of  these,  of  large  extent,  eventually  by  wave 
and  tidal  action  in  their  own  areas,  produced  the  deeps  and  shallows 
that  we  now  find. 

The  Engineering  Features 

From  Beaufort  to  Norfolk  and  from  the  Chesapeake  to  the 
Delaware,  waterways  must  be  located  in  this  low-lying  coastal  plain, 
with  its  shallow  streams  and  broad  sheets  of  water.  The  question 
of  construction  of  a  waterway  presents  as  its  first  and  most  difficult 
feature,  the  choice  of  route.  There  are  so  many  offering  nearly 
equal  advantages,  or  equally  balanced  advantages  and  disadvantages, 
that  it  is  difficult  to  reduce  even  the  more  obvious  to  a  reasonable 
number  for  careful  consideration.  On  the  Norfolk-Beaufort  route 
the  waterway  was  divided  for  consideration  into  three  divisions,  and 
it  was  deemed  absolutely  necessary  to  examine  carefully  five  routes 
in  the  first  division,  six  in  the  second,  and  two  in  the  third.  From 
the  Chesapeake  to  the  Delaware,  nine  routes  have  been  carefully 
considered.  For  both  waterways  many  other  routes  have  been  pro- 
posed and  considered,  but  not  examined.  On  the  Beaufort-Norfolk 
waterway  the  decision  is  rendered  more  difficult  by  the  question  of 
depth — some  routes  offering  greater  advantages  for  a  ten  or  twelve- 
foot  depth  which  disappear  when  a  sixteen-foot  depth  is  considered 
— these  being  the  three  depths  that  have  been  reported  to  Congress 
with  definite  estimates.  It  is  probable  that  the  best  routes  for  these 
depths  would  yield  in  parts  to  other  routes  were  a  thirty-five  foot 
ship  canal  contemplated.  The  great  present  demand  for  canals,  to 
become  greater  in  the  future,  will  eventually  require  large  ship 
canals  along  all  the  sections  of  the  great  route  we  are  discussing 
as  a  whole.  It  is  the  part  of  foresight  and  economy  that  each 
route  should  be  located  with  a  view  to  the  construction  of  a  chan- 
nel for  the  largest  commercial  ships.  If  channels  of  such  dimensions 
are  not  needed  at  present  or  funds  are  not  available  for  their  con- 
struction, let  the  modest  canal  barge  be  constructed,  of  twelve  to  six- 
teen-foot depth  ;  but  with  every  provision  made  in  the  acquisition  of 
land  and  the  location  of  route  to  permit  its  future  enlargement  to 
meet  any  commercial  demand  that  may  arise.  The  projects  for  both 
of  these  waterways  contain  no  provision  for  locks,  and  the  expensive 
work  of  reconstructing  locks  of  larger  size  will  not  militate  against 


76  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

enlargement  of  the  waterways  at  any  time  by  any  increment,  large 
or  small. 

The  construction  along  both  routes,  of  either  a  shallow  barge 
canal  or  of  a  deep  draft  ship  canal,  is  entirely  feasible.  The  geologic 
formation  is  such  as  to  offer  variety  of  material:  hard  sands  and 
gravels,  marsh  land,  upland  soils,  decomposed  peaty  strata  and  the 
real  quicksand.  No  rock  is  anticipated  along  these  two  routes.  The 
project  for  both  canals  is  for  tide-level  canals,  eliminating  the  many 
problems  arising  with  summit  canals,  in  the  arrangements  needed 
for  water  supply  and  for  avoidance  of  interference  with  local  streams 
and  drainage.  Excavation  by  well-known  engineering  methods  in 
both  land  and  water  cuts  wull  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  work.  A 
troublesome  quicksand  on  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Canal, 
7,000  feet  long  and  forty  feet  thick,  will  offer  interesting,  but  not 
difficult,  study  for  its  passage.  Sliding  side  banks  in  one  locality 
present  difificulties  to  overcome.  Permanent  organization  of  plant 
and  personnel  must  be  considered  and  provided  to  meet  the 
necessary  work  in  the  maintenance  of  channel  depths  and  widths 
after  completion,  the  removal  of  ice,  the  lighting  and  policing  of 
the  canal,  and  the  repairs  of  banks,  revetments  and  appurtenance.^. 
All  of  these  have  been  carefully  considered  in  the  projects  and 
estimates  for  these  waterways,  but  their  details,  while  of  technical 
interest  to  the  engineer,  have  no  place  in  such  a  conference  as  ours. 

In  the  further  prosecution  of  the  construction  of  the  water- 
ways along  the  route,  and  in  discussion  relative  thereto,  there  are 
two  obstructive  and  misleading  engineering  fallacies  that  will  be 
certain  to  play  a  part  on  these  canals  as  they  have  on  those  of  the 
past. 

Land  and  Water  Cuts 

A  glance  at  the  geography  of  our  Atlantic  coast  shows  an 
almost  continuous  line  of  bays,  sounds,  lakes,  rivers  and  creeks 
paralleling  the  shore  of  the  ocean  from  Florida  to  Cape  Cod.  It 
would  appear  at  first  sight  that  the  excavation  of  a  channel  across 
the  short  intervals  of  land  separating  the  links  of  the  chain  would 
create  a  magnificent  waterway  for  commerce.  This  is  not  true; 
most  of  the  stretches  of  water  that  we  see  on  the  map  are  so  shal- 
low that  the  excavation  of  channels  is  as  much  needed  in  them  as 
through  the  land;  and,  furthermore,  which  is  the  point  I  wish  to 


Engineering  Features  of  Inland   IVaterways  77 

bring  out,  channels  dredged  in  bodies  of  shallow  water  are  fre- 
quently more  expensive  than  through  land  cuts,  especially  along  this 
route.  "All  is  not  gold  that  glitters,"  and  similarly,  from  a  commer- 
cial and  engineering  standpoint,  all  is  not  water  that  is  printed  blue 
on  the  map.  The  land  along  most  of  the  territory  to  be  traversed 
by  our  route  is  low-lying  marsh  in  which  excavation  is  easy.  It  is 
frequently  land  of  little  or  no  value.  (In  my  present  district,  which 
comprises  part  of  five  states,  some  thirty  or  more  such  cuts  have 
been  made,  and  all  land  required  has  been  deeded  to  the  United 
States  free  of  cost.)  Disposition  of  dredged  material  becomes  sim- 
plified in  land  cuts,  as  it  can  be  easily  placed  ashore  where  it  will 
not  return  to  the  constructed  channel,  and  the  deposit  of  silt  in 
such  a  channel  will  be  only  that  washed  from  the  channel  itself,  giv- 
ing a  minimum  for  annual  maintenance  of  the  channel. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  channel  across  a  wide  wind-swept  area 
of  shallow  water  with  irregular  tides  and  currents  flowing  across 
the  line  of  channel,  presents  many  difficulties  not  present  in  the  land 
cuts.  While  the  excavation  in  dredging  may  be  less,  the  material 
dredged  cannot  usually  be  placed  along  the  sides  of  the  artificial 
channel,  as  a  large  portion  of  it  would,  in  all  likelihood,  return  to 
the  channel.  It  must,  therefore,  be  frequently  towed  long  dis- 
tances to  a  suitable  dumping  ground,  and  frequently  pumped  ashore 
from  an  artificial  dumping  basin  by  means  of  additional  and  costly 
plant.  Still  more  important,  the  exposure  of  these  channels  to 
wave  and  current  action  makes  their  navigation  difficult  and  their 
maintenance  costly.  In  the  higher  latitudes  these  open  channels 
are  also  rendered  difficult  and  dangerous  to  navigation  owing  to 
the  cross  passage  of  large  fields  of  moving  ice  during  the  winter 
season.  The  method  of  handling  boats  out  of  Baltimore  through 
an  open  channel  afifected  by  ice  fields  will  show  the  difficulties  aris- 
ing.   1  quote  from  a  report  of  the  war  department : 

The  experience  of  ice  boats  in  Baltimore  Harbor  and  the  approaches 
thereto  is  very  interesting  and  instructive.  Within  the  harbor  the  ice 
formed  in  place  constituted  what  is  known  as  still  ice.  The  traffic  of  the  port 
and  the  passage  of  the  ice  boat  through  keep  an  open  channel,  the  naviga- 
tion of  which  presents  no  difficulty.  The  ice  being  "still"  a  channel  or  pas- 
sage broken  through  it  remains  stationary  in  position.  This  is  the  state 
of  the  case  until  a  point  between  North  Point  and  the  Seven  Foot  Knoll 
is  reached.  Here  the  ice  is  a  drifting  field.  A  channel  way  being  broken 
through  it  drifts  with  the   field.     Therefore   a  passage  broken  through  this 


78  The  Annals  of  the  Ar.ieriean  Academy 

field  and  over  the  deep-dredged  channel  immediately  moves  off  this  channel, 
and  in  a  short  space  of  time,  the  work  must  again  be  gone  over  before  any 
vessels  can  pass  along  the  dredged  way.  *  *  *  When  ice  is  thus  drifting, 
the  method  of  procedure  is  the  following :  One  or  more  vessels  desiring 
to  proceed  to  sea  are  towed  by  a  tug  boat  and  convoyed  by  the  ice  boat 
which  precedes  the  tow.  To  allow  for  the  drifting  of  the  broken  passage 
through  the  ice,  the  ice  boat  works  not  over  the  dredged  cut  but  on  the 
side  from  which  the  ice  is  drifting.  The  tow  being  at  a  proper  distance 
behind  can  move  along  the  dredged  channel  as  the  ice  cut  is  passing  over  it. 

These  statements  will,  I  think,  show  you  that  occasionally  the 
land  cut  is  more  economical  in  construction,  and  still  more  fre- 
quently in  maintenance.  Generally  the  natural  bodies  of  water  offer 
the  cheapest  and  best  route,  but  the  economy  resulting  from  oc- 
casional resort  to  land  cuts  even  paralleling  such  bodies  of  water 
should  not  be  lost  to  sight,  and  not  ridiculed  when  suggested. 

Tide-Locks 

The  second  fallacy  is  more  dangerous  and  far-reaching  than 
the  first.  It  is  the  well-known  tendency  to  consider  tide-locks 
necessary  on  all  tide-level  canals  to  prevent  dangerous  flow  in  the 
canals  due  to  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide.  This  tendency  is  not 
confined  to  the  lay  mind,  but  extends  to  many  of  our  most  cele- 
brated hydraulic  engineers.  President  Shouts,  of  the  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission,  when  the  discussion  of  a  tide-level  or  high-level 
canal  Avas  under  consideration,  was  widely  quoted  as  saying  that 
"one  lock  (tide)  being  a  necessity,  the  addition  of  four  others  be- 
comes less  objectionable."  Was  one  lock  a  necessity  if  a  tide-level 
canal  had  been  decided  upon?  Many  of  our  best  engineers  think 
not.  During  the  French  regime  on  the  canal,  a  study  of  the  sub- 
ject by  the  most  thorough  students  of  the  hydraulics  of  the  canal 
in  France,  led  to  reports  that  it  was  not  necessary,  founded  on  care- 
ful calculation  and  investigation ;  and  these  reports  were  concurred 
in  by  the  French  Academy  in  1887.  Mr.  Clemens  Herschel.^  one 
of  the  most  noted  of  our  hydraulic  engineers,  in  an  article  question- 
ing the  necessity  for  a  lock  on  a  tide-level  canal  at  Panama,  says: 
"The  idea  of  the  Suez  Canal  was  denounced  by  leading  engineers 
of  the  day  as  an  impossible  work  if  built  without  a  tide-lock,  and 
held  up  to  the  scorn  and  ridicule  of  men  by  these  same  engineers 
and  by  some  of  the  greatest  statesmen  of  that  period,  as  a  btibble 

^Engineering  News,  March  22,  1906. 


Engineering   Features   of   Inland    IVaterzvays  79 

scheme,   sure  to   bring  ruin   to   who  would   support  it 

Now,  fifty  years  later,  it  is  paying  $17,000,000  annually  to  its  stock- 
holders, and  a  proposition  to  put  a  lock  into  it  would  be  regarded 
as  the  suggestion  of  a  maniac."  The  construction  of  the  lockless 
canal  of  Corinth  was  delayed  over  2,000  years  after  it  was  first  pro- 
jected owing  to  this  same  fallacy.  It  is  now  navigated  with  ease. 
An  expensive  tide-lock  was  put  in  the  Albemarle  and  Chesapeake 
Canal,  in  Virginia,  because  a  difference  of  level  of  eleven  feet  some- 
times existed  between  the  water  at  the  ends  of  the  canal,  eighteen 
miles  long.  The  lock  is  seldom  closed,  and  then  only  to  prevent 
erosion  of  the  banks,  which  could  have  been  easily  met  by  revet- 
ment. 

I  think  I  can  explain  in  a  few  words  the  cause  of  the  existence 
of  this  fallacy.  Difference  of  water  level  at  two  ends  of  an  open 
waterway  always  causes  flow,  which  increases  as  a  direct  function 
of  the  height.  If  the  difference  is  constant,  the  flow  is  constant,  and 
may  be  easily  computed.  Where  the  differences  at  both  ends 
are  caused  by  tides,  the  resultant  difference  is  a  constantly  vary- 
ing one.  The  head  of  water  is  rapidly  changing,  while  the  velocity 
engendered  by  it  is  slowly  coming  into  life,  retarded  by  friction  and 
inertia.  Long  before  a  velocity  equals  that  caused  by  the  extreme 
tidal  head,  it  is  beginning  to  fail  from  a  reversal  of  the  tidal  con- 
ditions. It  results  that  currents  thus  engendered  by  constantly 
varying  tidal  heads  never  reach  or  even  approach  nearly  the  veloci- 
ties corresponding  to  constant  heads,  equal  to  the  tidal  differences. 
Intricate  formulae,  generally  empirical,  have  been  devised  for  mak- 
ing computations  of  velocities  in  these  cases,  but  they  are,  I  regret 
to  say,  little  studied  by  many  who  should  understand  their  use, 
and  excessive  currents  are  frequently  predicted  which  have  been 
computed  for  static  heads.  To  prevent  delays  to  vessels  passing 
through  canals,  tlic  banks  should  be  revetted  sufficiently  to  permit 
a  fair  rate  of  speed  of  the  vessels  without  injury  to  the  banks.  Any 
current  that  an  ordinary  vessel  can  stem  will  not  injure  banks 
that  permit  a  rate  of  five  knots  to  passing  vessels.  Great  difference 
of  tidal  levels  at  the  ends  of  short  open  canals  does  in  some  cases 
require  tide-locks,  but  these  great  differences  do  not  exist  in  the 
waterways  under  consideration. 

Pardon  my  digressing  here  to  say,  for  fear  of  being  misquoted, 
that  I  have  always  regarded  a  high-level  lock  canal  as  the  best 


8o  The  Annals  of  the  .Uncrican  Academy 

type  at  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  but  for  reasons  not  pertinent  to 
this  paper,  and  certainly  not  to  avoid  tide-locks. 

Locks  are,  of  course,  necessary  where  a  constant  difference  of 
level  exists  of  considerable  height  between  the  ends  of  a  canal 
to  permit  safe  navigation,  and  they  are  frequently  used  for  eco- 
nomical reasons  to  pass  a  high  summit  level,  even  when  the  ends 
of  the  canal  may  be  practically  at  the  same  level.  The  Delaware 
and  Raritan  Canal  doubtless  requires  consideration  on  these  points, 
but  it  is  my  positive  and  carefully  considered  belief  that  no  lock  of 
any  description  will  be  required  in  any  part  of  the  chain  of  water- 
ways from  New  Jersey  to  the  Carolinas.  There  may  be  many  pres- 
ent who  disagree  with  me  on  these  points,  but  I  ask  you  all,  in 
considering  future  references  to  this  waterway  in  the  press  or  else- 
where, to  take  with  a  grain  of  salt  any  statement  made  as  to  the 
absurdity  of  land  cuts  paralleling  bodies  of  water,  or  the  necessity 
for  locks  on  a  tide-level  canal. 

Conclusion 

There  remains  only  for  me  to  say  that  there  is  nothing,  from 
an  engineering  standpoint,  to  prevent  the  construction  of  a  ship 
canal  from  Beaufort,  N.  C,  to  Norfolk,  Va.,  and  across  the  penin- 
sula of  Delaware  and  Maryland.  The  same  is  doubtless  true  of  other 
portions  of  the  great  Atlantic  waterway,  and  the  engineering  talent 
of  the  country  awaits  only  the  provision  of  the  necessary  funds, 
whether  from  the  national  government  or  from  private  or  corporate 
sources,  to  place  at  the  service  of  the  country's  commerce  this  most 
magnificent  highway. 


CAPE  COD  CANAL^ 


By  Wm.  Barclay  Parsons,  C.  E., 
New   York. 


In  the  consideration  of  an  inside  water  route  along  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  of  the  United  States,  the  link  that  will  connect  the  waters 
of  Long  Island  Sound  and  Massachusetts  Bay  is,  in  respect  of  size 
and  character  of  vessels  and  the  extent  of  tonnage  that  will  use  it, 
the  most  important,  and  historically  the  most  interesting  of  all  the 
sections  that,  when  completed,  will  make  possible  a  voyage  from 
Maine  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  free  from  interference  by  stress  of 
weather  or  attack  by  enemy  in  case  of  war. 

A  glance  at  the  map  of  Massachusetts  shows  projecting  from 
its  southeastern  corner  a  great  arm,  running  first  easterly  thirty- 
five  miles  and  then  northerly  about  the  same  distance,  terminatino^ 
in  a  hook  at  Provincetown.  To  this  arm  the  name  of  Cape 
Cod  is  applied.  This  curious  geographical  formation  is  everywhere 
flat,  with  few  hills,  especially  to  the  east,  and  is  composed  chiefly 
of  sand  and  gravel.  Around  this  cape  all  sea-going  traffic  between 
Massachusetts  Bay  ports,  such  as  Boston  and  Portland,  and  all  ports 
lying  to  the  south  must  pass. 

The  circumnavigation  of  the  cape  is  far  from  easy.  On  the 
south  side  lie  Martha's  Vineyard  and  Nantucket  Islands,  inclosing 
Vineyard  and  Nantucket  Sounds,  with  their  high  tidal  currents  and 
many  shoals ;  while  to  the  east  are  the  great  shoals  extending  south- 
easterly to  the  celebrated  Nantucket  shoals,  marked  by  the  light  ves- 
sel of  that  name.  These  shoals,  the  low,  sandy  coast,  difficult  to  see 
in  thick  weather,  the  frequent  fogs,  and  the  unbroken  exposure  to 
northeast  storms,  have  made  the  passage  of  the  cape  a  dreaded 
one  to  all  mariners,  and  the  record  of  wrecks  year  by  year,  with 
their  shocking  loss  of  ships,  cargoes  and  life,  is  ample  testimony 
that  their  fears  do  not  lack  foundation. 

The  only  place  on  the  cape  where  its  breadth  is  material  is 
the  southerly  projection  towards  Falmouth,  which,  with  the  ex- 
tended chain  of  islands,  forms  the  eastern  shore  of  Buzzards  Bay. 

iThis  paper  was  read  before  the  Atlantic  Deeper  Waterways  Conference,  Philadelphia, 
November  19,  1907. 

(8i) 


82  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

At  the  head  of  the  bay  the  distance  overland  to  Barnstable  Bay  is 
less  than  eight  miles.  This  distance  is  made  up  in  chief  part  by 
the  Monument  River  to  the  south  and  the  Scusset  River  to  the  north. 
Separating  them  is  a  ridge  whose  height  is  only  thirty  feet  above  sea 
level.  The  deepening  of  the  rivers  and  the  cutting  of  a  canal 
through  this  ridge,  making  thereby  a  direct  water  route,  avoiding 
the  journey  around  the  cape,  is  so  obvious  a  shortening  of  distance 
and  reduction  of  marine  risks  as  to  cause  wonder  it  was  not  long 
since  done.  The  contemplation  of  such  a  channel  is,  in  fact,  almost 
coeval  with  the  Pilgrim  settlement  at  Plymouth  in  1620.  The 
records  of  that  colony  show  that  in  1622  a  party  succeeded  in  get- 
ting a  boat  around  the  cape,  only  to  have  it  lost  in  Mneyard  Sound. 
The  year  following  they  discovered  that  from  Manomet,  an  Indian 
town  within  twenty  miles  of  Plymouth,  there  flowed  a  river  south- 
erly to  a  bay  which  opened  towards  Narragansett,  and  within  a 
short  time  afterwards  the  thrifty  colonists  established  there  a  trad- 
ing station,  between  which  and  the  Dutch  settlement  at  Fort  Ams- 
terdam there  at  once  developed  a  brisk  trade,  the  Dutch  vessels 
ascending  the  river  to  Manomet,  whence  the  goods  were  carried  the 
short  remaining  distance  overland  to  Massachusetts  Bay.  Before 
the  seventeenth  century  was  one-third  gone  there  was  thus  estab- 
lished the  beginning  of  the  Boston-New  York  water-borne  trade, 
which  has  since  grown  to  such  huge  proportions.  The  old  name  of 
Manomet  has  unfortunately  been  corrupted  into  the  meaningless 
form  of  Monument,  and  as  such  is  now  applied  to  the  river  which 
the  Plymouth  colonists  found. 

The  idea  of  extending  this  river  not  over  two  miles  to  the 
north  so  as  to  make  a  continuous  waterway  and  dispense  with  a 
land  portage  must  have  soon  occurred  to  the  traders.  At  least  no 
later  than  1676  one  Samuel  Sewall  records  in  his  diary,  under  date 
of  October  26th:  "Mr.  Smith,  of  Sandwich,  rode  with  me  and 
showed  me  the  place  which  some  had  thought  to  cut,  for  to  make  a 
passage  from  the  south  sea  to  the  north." 

Officially,  however,  things  moved  slowly  then,  as  they  do  now, 
and  it  is  not  until  1697,  or  seventy  years  after  the  arrival  of  the 
Dutch  vessel  from  New  Amsterdam,  that  the  authorities'  attention 
seems  to  have  been  drawn  to  it.  In  that  year  the  records  of  October 
30th,  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  contain  the  following  reso- 
lution : 


Cal>c  Cod  Canal  83 

Whereas,  It  is  thought  by  many  to  be  very  necessary  for  the  preser- 
vation of  man  and  estates,  and  very  profitable  and  useful  to  the  public, 
if  a  passage  be  cut  through  the  land  at  Sandwich  from  Barnstable  Bay,  so 
called,  into  Monamcnt  Bay,  for  vessels  to  pass  to  and  from  the  western  part 
of  this  country. 

Ordered,  That  Mr.  Hohn  Otis,  of  Barnstable,  Captain  William  Bassett 
and  Mr.  Thomas  Smith,  of  Sandwich,  be  and  are  hereby  appointed  to  view 
the  place,  and  make  report  to  this  Court,  at  their  next  sessions,  what  they 
judge  will  be  the  General  Conveniences  and  inconveniences  that  may  accrue 
thereby,  and  what  the  charge  of  the  same  may  be,  and  probability  of  effecting 
thereof. 

So  far  as  the  records  give  evidence,  these  citizens  have  not  yet 
reported.  In  fact,  as  to  any  action  by  the  Colony  of  Massachusetts, 
the  matter  lay  dormant  until  May,  1776,  when  the  General  Court 
passed  this  resolve: 

In  Council.  Whereas,  It  is  represented  to  this  Court  that  a  navigable 
canal  may  without  much  difficulty  be  cut  through  the  isthmus  which 
separates  Buzzards  Bay  and  Barnstable  Bay,  whereby  the  Hazardous  Naviga- 
tion round  Cape  Cod,  both  on  account  of  the  shoals  and  enemy,  may  be 
prevented,  and  a  safe  communication  between  this  colony  and  the  southern 
colonies  be  so  far  secured. 

Resolved,  That  James  Bowdoin  and  William  Sever,  Esqrs.,  with  such 
as  the  Hon.  House  shall  join,  or  the  major  part  of  them,  be  a  committee 
to  repair  to  the  town  of  Sandwich,  and  view  the  premises,  and  report  whether 
the  cutting  of  a  canal  as  aforesaid  be  practicable  or  not.  And  they  are  hereby 
authorized  to  employ  any  necessary  surveyors  and  assistants  for  that 
purpose. 

As  a  result  of  this  resolution  a  committee  was  appointed,  and 
apparently  for  the  first  time  proceeded  on  scientific  lines  by  ap- 
pointing an  engineer,  Mr.  Thomas  Machin.  Mr.  Machin  at  once 
began  a  survey,  but  the  year  1776  being  an  important  one  in  the 
annals  not  only  of  the  Colony  of  Massachusetts  but  of  other  colonies 
as  well,  Mr.  Machin  was  withdrawn  in  June  of  the  same  year  by 
an  army  officer  giving  more  concern  to  making  a  country  rather 
than  a  canal,  one  George  Washington,  who  wrote  to  the  chairman 
of  the  committee  that,  "The  great  demand  we  have  for  engineers 
in  this  department  has  obliged  me  to  order  Mr.  Machin  hither  to 
assist  in  that  branch  of  the  business." 

In  1791,  Massachusetts  having  now  become  a  state,  the  legis- 
lature appointed  a  committee  to  again  inquire  into  the  possibility 
of  1  canal  across  the  cape.     From  that  time  until  1824  the  question 


84  The  A>i)tals  of  the  American  Academy 

was  continually  before  the  state  legislature.  In  the  latter  year  the 
government  of  the  United  States  intervened,  and  by  a  joint  resolu- 
tion of  both  houses  the  President  of  the  United  States  was  author- 
ized to  cause  the  necessary  surveys,  plans  and  estimates  to  be  made 
for  a  canal  across  the  cape.  As  a  result  of  this  survey,  detailed 
plans  were  finished  for  a  canal  which  was  to  be  thirty-six  feet  wide 
on  the  bottom,  sixty  feet  wide  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  with  a 
depth  of  eight  feet,  the  canal  to  be  equipped  with  locks. 

The  eminent  French  engineer,  Major  William  Tell  Poussin, 
who  visited  this  country  in  1831,  and  who,  on  return  to  France, 
made  an  extensive  report  on  public  improvements  of  the  United 
States,  describes,  with  elaborate  drawings,  the  Cape  Cod  Canal  as 
being  one  of  the  greatest  pieces  of  construction  contemplated  on 
the  American  continent.  From  1830  to  i860  the  project  languished, 
but  in  the  latter  year  the  legislature  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts 
once  more  took  it  up,  reported,  and  again  reported  in  1864.  From 
that  date  until  the  present  the  question  of  the  canal  has  been  at 
intervals  under  discussion.  The  state  granted  a  charter  under  which 
work  was  actually  begun ;  funds,  however,  were  not  forthcoming 
in  sufficient  amount,  the  work  was  abandoned,  and  the  charter 
allowed  to  lapse.  In  1899  the  legislature  passed  another  charter, 
amended  in  1900,  in  accordance  with  which  plans  for  a  canal  have 
been  prepared  by  the  writer,  submitted  to  the  joint  board  of  rail- 
road and  harbor  and  land  commissioners  of  the  State  of  Massa- 
chusetts, approved  by  them  and  work  begun. 

All  the  early  schemes  for  a  canal  at  this  point  contemplated 
locks.  Brevet  Major-General  J.  G.  Foster,  Lieutenant-Colonel  of 
Engineers,  U.  S.  Army,  in  1870,  was  the  first  to  call  attention  to 
the  fact  that,  although  there  is  a  considerable  difference  in  tidal 
phenomena  at  the  two  ends  of  the  canal,  nevertheless  the  resulting 
current  will  not  be  sufficient  to  require  locks.  This  same  view  has 
been  sustained  by  many  eminent  authorities,  among  them  the  late 
Colonel  A.  L.  Rives,  for  many  years  superintendent  and  chief 
engineer  of  the  Panama  Railroad ;  Dr.  Elmer  L.  Corthcll,  the 
associate  with  Captain  Eads  in  the  Mississippi  jetties,  and  himself 
the  constructor  of  many  notable  harbor  developments  in  various 
parts  of  the  world,  and  Mr.  Clemens  Herschel.  The  plans  that 
are  imder  construction  therefore  contemplate  a  canal  free  from  locks 
or  dams.    The  law  requires  that  the  bottom  width  shall  be  not  less 


Cape  Cud  Canal  85 

than  100  feet,  with  passing  places  where  the  bottom  width  shall  be 
twice  as  great,  and  with  a  minimum  depth  at  any  point  at  mean 
low  water  of  twenty-five  feet.  In  actual  construction  it  is  proba- 
ble that  the  minimum  width  will  be  greatly  exceeded;  in  fact  it  is 
most  likely  that  the  passing  places,  instead  of  being  made  three  in 
number,  will  be  connected  so  that  the  canal  will  have  everywhere  a 
bottom  width  of  150  to  200  feet,  and  a  width  at  the  surface  of 
from  250  to  500  feet,  depending  upon  the  slope  that  the  banks  will 
take.  These  dimensions  can  be  compared  with  a  bottom  width  in 
the  Suez  Canal  of  147  feet,  in  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal  at  Kiel  of 
y2  feet,  and  in  the  Manchester  Canal  of  120  to  200  feet ;  the  depths 
of  these  canals  vary  from  twenty-six  to  thirty  feet. 

From  the  shores  of  Barnstable  Bay  to  the  shores  of  Buzzards 
Bay  is  a  distance  of  eight  miles.  The  sharpest  curve  is  projected 
to  have  a  radius  of  7,640  feet,  so  that  navigation  for  vessels  of  any 
size  within  the  limits  of  depth  will  be  simple.  At  the  south  end 
Buzzards  Bay  is  land-locked  and  affords  an  excellent  harbor ;  at  the 
north  end  the  canal  will  flow  directly  into  the  open  waters  of  Barn- 
stable Bay  without  any  natural  protection.  This  bay  is  open  to 
storms  from  the  north  and  northwest.  It  is  proposed,  to  provide 
protection  against  winds  coming  from  this  direction,  to  build  a 
breakwater  for  a  distance  of  3.000  feet,  running  easterly  and 
extending  to  the  six-fathom  curve  at  low  water,  so  that  vessels 
entering  from  the  open  bay,  even  in  rough  weather,  will  be  able 
to  obtain  smooth  conditions  before  entering  the  canal.  In  addition, 
the  United  States  Government  should  construct  a  harbor  of  refuge 
by  the  building  of  other  breakwaters,  so  that  vessels,  after  having 
passed  the  canal,  may  lie  at  anchor  in  the  waters  of  Barnstable 
Bay  until  such  times  as  they  are  ready  to  continue  their  voyages, 
if  delayed  by  stress  of  weather,  accident  or  other  cause.  Such  har- 
bor is  so  obviously  a  part  of  open  sea  navigation  that  it  logically 
should  be  done  by  the  government  as  similar  works  are  done  along 
the  coast,  and  not  by  a  priva<^e  company. 

This  canal  is  not  a  channel  for  local  traffic,  but  is  essentially 
a  ship  canal  for  ocean-going  vessels  in  through  service.  The 
figures  of  proposed  depth  and  width  of  the  Cape  Cod  Canal 
show  that  it  will  be  of  the  same  general  character  as  to  size 
as  the  great  ship  canals  of  the  world,  and  the  dimensions  are  amply 
sufficient  to  accommodate  all  vessels  engaged  in  the  coastwise  traffic 


86  The  Annals  of  the  Amerieaii  Academy 

at  any  stage  of  tide,  and  permit  them  to  pass  each  other  in  opposite 
directions  without  hindrance.  In  fact,  the  canal  will  be  of  really 
greater  capacity  than  the  above  figures  would  indicate,  which  are 
based  on  mean  low  water  conditions.  Since  the  tide  rises  in  Buz- 
zards Bay  about  five  feet,  the  depth  of  water  in  the  canal  when 
there  is  high  tide  in  Buzzards  Bay  will  be  thirty  feet,  a  depth  that 
will  be  substantially  maintained  at  that  time  through  the  canal,  as 
mean  tide  at  Sandwich  which  occurs  when  there  is  high  tide  in  Buz- 
zards Bay  will  also  give  thirty  feet  depth  at  the  north  end.  Avail- 
able draft  can  therefore  be  said  to  vary  from  twenty-five  feet  as 
the  minimum  to  thirty  feet  as  the  ordinary  maximum.  The  latter 
depth  would  suffice  to  carry  vessels  of  the  battleship  class,  should 
the  government  ever  have  occasion  to  send  such  vessels  through  the 
canal. 

The  general  trend  of  the  Atlantic  coast  is  northeasterly.  A 
straight  line  drawn  from  the  mouth  of  the  Chesapeake,  or  the 
mouth  of  the  Delaware,  or  from  Sandy  Hook,  to  Boston,  will  cut 
the  land  well  to  the  westward  of  the  proposed  canal.  The  actual 
saving  in  distance  will  therefore  be  the  same  for  any  vessel  trading 
between  a  Massachusetts  Bay  port  and  practically  any  of  the  ports 
on  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  Vessels  now  making  this  journey  have 
two  courses  open.  If  going  from  New  York  they  can  pass  through 
Long  Island  Sound  and  Vineyard  Sound  around  the  cape ;  or  they 
can  go  by  sea  past  Sandy  Hook,  and  then  from  Montauk  Point  either 
through  Vineyard  Sound,  as  before,  or  to  the  southward  of  Martha's 
\^ineyard  and  Nantucket  Islands  around  the  cape.  \^essels  from 
Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Newport  News,  Norfolk,  Wilmington, 
Charleston,  Savannah,  Brunswick,  or  any  other  port,  can  pass  Mon- 
tauk Point  and  go  either  through  Vineyard  Sound,  as  above,  or  to 
the  southerly  of  the  two  islands. 

Taking  a  common  point  of  departure  by  the  inside  route 
through  Vineyard  Sound,  there  would  be  a  saving  in  going  through 
the  canal  of  sixty-six  miles  in  distance ;  or,  by  taking  another  com- 
mon point  of  departure  outside  of  Montauk  Point,  there  would  be 
a  saving  of  sixty-three  to  seventy-one  miles  for  vessels  going 
through  the  canal  instead  of  passing  to  the  south  of  the  islands, 
according  as  bad  shoals  are  crossed  or  avoided.  Or,  if  in  the  lat- 
ter case,  a  vessel  should  wish  to  escape  all  the  Nantucket  shoals 
and  make  a  complete  circuit  rather  than  go  across,  there  would  be 


Cape  Cod  Canal  87 

a  saving  of  129  miles  between  New  York  and  Boston,  and  105  be- 
tween Philadelphia  and  Boston.  For  points  south  of  Philadelphia, 
the  saving  in  distance  would  be  substantially  the  same,  although,  as 
compared  with  the  journey  length,  necessarily  proportionately  less. 
The  saving  in  distance  is  not,  however,  the  only  saving  that  would 
be  realized,  as  the  worst  part  of  the  journey  is  the  journey  around 
the  cape,  whether  it  lies  across  the  shoals  or  goes  around  them. 

Fogs,  storms,  and  adverse  currents  frequently  keep  vessels 
storm-bound  either  at  Provincetown  or  in  Vineyard  Sound  for  days 
at  a  time,  so  that  no  certain  time  of  arrival  can  be  predicated  even 
for  vessels  in  tow,  still  less  for  vessels  under  sail,  while  the  terrible 
list  of  wrecks  on  the  shores  of  the  cape  attest  the  foolhardiness  of 
attempting  to  make  the  journey  in  bad  weather.  During  the  year 
1905,  the  last  for  which  statistics  are  available,  fourteen  vessels 
were  lost  on  the  shoals  and  the  short  stretch  of  thirty-five  miles 
of  Cape  Cod  coast.  The  tonnage  of  these  wrecks  composed  24.1 
per  cent,  or  say  one-quarter,  of  the  total  tonnage  of  wrecks  reported 
on  the  whole  coast  line  of  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts, 
Rhode  Island,  Connecticut  and  Long  Island.  So  measurable  is  the 
danger  of  Cape  Cod  transit,  as  compared  with  the  quiet  navigation 
of  Buzzards  Bay  and  the  canal,  that  inquiries  addressed  to  the 
marine  underwriters  in  New  York  elicited  the  response  that  in- 
surance rates  on  the  cargoes  of  sailing  vesels  and  barges  would 
be  reduced  from  10  to  25  per  cent  to  vessels  using  the  canal. 

The  traffic  that  would  seek  the  canal  route  is  of  three  classes : 
First.  Passenger  steamers  between  New  York  and  Boston. 
This  business  is  now  handled  in  two  ways:  by  vessels  running  to 
Fall  River,  Providence,  New  Bedford,  or  other  sound  ports,  and 
thence  by  rail  to  Boston,  or  by  vessels  going  around  the  cape.  The 
first  method  requires  but  one  night  for  the  journey,  but  it  involves 
a  transshipment  of  passengers  and  freight  inconvenient  to  the  for- 
mer and  expensive  for  the  latter.  The  second  method  requires 
usually  eighteen  to  twenty  hours,  or  say  a  night  and  the  forenoon 
of  the  following  day,  unless  further  delayed  by  thick  weather.  The 
canal  will  permit  the  journey  to  be  completed  in  thirteen  to  fourteen 
hours,  or  comfortably  between  evening  and  early  morning.  To 
show  the  extent  of  this  traffic,  there  are  running  regularly  every 
night  between  New  England  ports,  exclusive  of  any  north  of  Bos- 
ton, twenty-four  large  steamers  both  ways,  of  which  sixteen  carry 


88  The  Annals  of  the  American  Aeadeniy 

passengers.  During  the  summer  not  only  is  the  total  increased, 
but  also  the  percentage  carrying  passengers.  Of  the  twenty-four, 
the  New  England  Steamship  Company  controls  sixteen.  All  these 
steamers  pass  out  through  Long  Island  Sound,  and  by  far  the 
greater  portion  of  the  passengers  and  freight  would  be  more  expedi- 
tiously, economically  and  comfortably  handled  through  the  canal. 

SecoJid.  Steamers  carrying  chiefly  freight,  but  also  some  pas- 
sengers, between  Boston  and  ports  south  of  New  York.  Lines  are 
regularly  established  from  Boston  to  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Nor- 
folk, Charleston,  Savannah  and  Jacksonville,  w'ith  twenty  sailings 
weekly  both  ways,  offering  an  annual  freight  capacity  of  more  than 
2,000,000  tons.  In  additon  there  is  a  large  volume  of  freight  traffic, 
chiefly  fruit,  from  the  West  Indies  and  Central  America,  steamers 
from  such  ports  entering  at  Boston  Custom  House  to  the  extent 
of  over  200  annually.  All  this  traffic  could  save  by  the  canal,  and 
much  of  it  will  use  it. 

Third.  Freight  traffic  of  raw  materials  transported  in  sailing 
vessels  or  barges.  This  traffic  would  furnish  the  major  volume  of 
the  canal  business,  and  it  consists  chiefly  in  coal,  southern  lumber 
for  New  England,  Maine  lumber,  such  as  spruce  for  points  south 
of  the  cape,  stone  from  Massachusetts  and  Maine,  ice  south-bound, 
cement,  brick  and  lime  north-bound,  oil  and  oil  products,  cotton 
reshipped  at  New  York,  and  other  bulky  commodities.  Such  arti- 
cles must  be  transported  cheaply.  The  New  England  railways 
leading  from  New  York  are  now  so  congested  with  passenger 
traffic  and  the  carrying  of  high  classified  freights  that  such  articles 
as  those  stated  above  cannot  be  given  the  low  rates  that  their  value 
demands — such  traffic  must  go  by  sea. 

In  point  of  tonnage  the  biggest  item  in  the  above  list  is  coal. 
During  the  year  ended  June  30,  1907,  it  is  estimated  that  the  coal 
shipments  to  Massachusetts  Bay  ports,  of  which  Boston  and  Port- 
land are  the  chief,  amounted  to  no  less  than  12.000.000  tons  which 
were  shipped  from  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore  and  Norfolk. 
Exclusive  of  the  freight  carried  in  the  regular  coastwise  steamers, 
it  is  estimated  that  the  other  commodities  aggregated  during  the  year 
some  5,000,000  tons,  making  a  gross  total  of  about  18,000.000  tons. 

From  these  statistics,  and  the  diversified  points  of  origin  of 
traffic,  it  will  be  seen  that  this  canal  is  of  national  importance. 
Although  nominally  the  bulk  of  the  cargoes  that  will  use  it  north- 


Cape  Cod  Canal  89 

bound  start  from  New  York,  that  port  is  not  the  originating  point. 
The  cargoes  represent  the  produce  of  the  many  states  seeking  their 
market  through  a  convenient  channel — coal  from  Pennsylvania  and 
West  Virginia,  tobacco  from  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas,  timber 
from  Georgia,  cotton  from  the  w^hole  of  the  great  South.  It  is  an 
enterprise  in  which  every  state  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  from 
Maine  to  Florida  and  Texas,  is  interested. 

If  the  volume  of  traffic  already  in  existence  is  so  great,  and 
the  saving  in  distance,  delay  and  danger  of  such  importance,  the 
question  naturally  arises  why,  after  300  years  of  agitation,  the  canal 
was  not  built  before.  The  answer  to  this  very  natural  question  will 
be  found  in  the  change  that  has  been  taking  place  in  water  transpor- 
tation, a  change  which  has  made  it  possible  for  the  State  of  New 
York  to  throw  away  its  enormous  investment  in  the  existing  canal 
system  of  the  state  and  build  an  entirely  new  system  from  Lakes 
Erie,  Ontario  and  Champlain  to  Albany,  at  a  cost  of  over  $100,- 
000,000. 

As  long  as  the  coastwise  traffic  was  controlled  by  schooners, 
with  a  recognized  vmknown  length  of  journey  and  an  amount  of 
delay  impossible  to  forecast,  the  value  of  the  distance  and  time 
saved  was  not  of  so  much  importance  as  to  overcome  the  expense 
to  a  sailing  vessel  in  traversing  the  more  or  less  narrow  waters  of 
Buzzards  Bay  and  being  towed  through  the  canal.  Steam,  how- 
ever, within  the  last  few  years  has  been  making  the  same  inroads 
into  the  methods  of  coastwise  traffic  that  it  has  already  made  in 
ocean  traffic,  so  that  the  schooner  is  following  in  the  footsteps  of  the 
picturesque  clipper  ship,  and  is  giving  way  to  the  tug  and  tramp 
steamer. 

As  soon  as  a  vessel  owner  adopts  as  a  motive  power  an  agent 
that  will  enable  him  to  send  his  vessels  on  a  schedule  he  at  once 
begins  to  take  account  of  delays,  and  places  a  money  value  against 
the  time  lost.  This  method  of  reasoning — and  it  is  sound — warrants 
the  expenditure  of  large  sums  in  the  improvement  of  waterways, 
such  as  the  Cape  Cod  Canal,  that  would  not  have  been,  and  were 
not,  justifiable  one  or  two  decades  since. 

To-day  the  greater  part  of  the  coal  traffic  between  New  Eng- 
land, New  York,  Philadelphia  and  Norfolk  is  handled  in  barges, 
usually  two  or  three  in  number,  behind  an  ocean-going  tug.  To 
show    the    extent   to    which    the    new    methods    of   transportation 


90  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

are  superseding  the  old,  the  statistics  compiled  by  the  chamber  of 
commerce  for  the  port  of  Boston  each  year  are  at  hand.  In 
1902  there  arrived  in  Boston  from  domestic  ports  south  of  Cape 
Cod  ij033  steamers,  1,209  sailing  vesels,  909  tugs  and  1,879 
barges;  total,  5,030.  In  1906,  four  years  later,  there  were  1,148 
steamers,  900  sailing  vessels,  1,166  tugs,  and  2,458  barges ;  total, 
5,672.  The  aggregate  vessel  tonnage  of  the  former  year  was  a 
little  over  5,000,000  tons,  and  of  the  latter  nearly  7,000,000  tons. 

The  thing  that  strikes  one  in  these  statistics  is  the  small  increase 
in  vessel  number  and  yet  the  large  increase  in  vessel  tonnage,  indi- 
cating an  increase  in  average  size  of  unit.  While  the  total  number 
of  steamers  remains  substantially  the  same,  sailing  vessels  have 
decreased  25  per  cent  in  number  and  the  barges  have  increased 
more  than  2)2>  P^'"  cent  in  number. 

In  1902,  of  the  total  entrances  at  Boston,  steamers  comprised 
20.5  per  cent,  tugs  18  per  cent,  sailing  vessels  24  per  cent  and 
barges  37.5  per  cent.  The  same  division  in  1906  was :  steamers  20.3 
per  cent,  tugs  20.6  per  cent,  sailing  vessels  15.8  per  cent,  and  barges 
43.3  per  cent.  Or,  taking  the  United  States  Government  figures 
for  1905  and  comparing  them  as  a  matter  of  convenience  with  the 
census  returns  for  the  year  1899,  of  the  total  tonnage  carried  to 
Boston  53.9  per  cent  went  in  steamers  in  1899,  and  exactly  the 
same  in  1905;  but  while  barges  carried  but  21. i  per  cent  in  1899, 
they  carried  31.3  per  cent  in  1905,  and  the  sailing  vessel  tonnage, 
which  had  accounted  for  25  per  cent  of  the  whole  in  the  first  year, 
had  fallen  to  14.8  per  cent  in  the  second. 

This  same  general  change  in  traffic  conditions  will  apply  equally 
to  all  waterways  that  are  to  be  hereafter  constructed,  and  any  water- 
way that  is  either  to  be  constructed  anew  or  to  be  made  by  the 
improvement  of  existing  conditions,  must  be  undertaken  with  the 
view  of  its  exploitation  by  vessels  whose  power  will  be  for  the  most 
part  something  other  than  sails.  With  the  Cape  Cod  Canal  estab- 
lished, the  great  source  not  only  of  danger  but  of  delay  will  have 
been  removed,  and  the  towing  companies,  whether  private  or  part 
of  the  various  coal  companies'  equipment,  can  estimate  with  reason- 
able certainty  upon  the  time  of  departure  and  arrival  of  their 
tugs,  in  fact  with  a  much  greater  certainty  than  for  similar  ship- 
ments by  rail. 

Its  national  rather  than  local  character  is  to  be  impressed  on 


Cape  Cod  Canal  qi 

the  attention  of  this  convention,  as  this  canal  will  do  more  than 
make  a  water  route  from  New  York  to  Boston.  It  will  at  once,  by 
means  of  the  Raritan,  Delaware  and  Chesapeake,  and  other  canals, 
complete  an  inside  route  safe  at  all  seasons  for  all  boats  from  North 
Carolina  to  Maine,  and  that  without  a  single  dollar  more  to  be 
invested  by  the  nation  or  any  state.  From  that  point  the  labors  of 
this  convention  can  be  exerted  to  deepen,  widen  and  develop  the 
existing  links  and  construct  the  others  that  are  now  lacking,  so 
that  this  inside  route  may  be  continuous  and  of  sufficient  size  for 
modern  requirements.  To  this  end  not  only  must  canals  be  built 
and  small  rivers  enlarged,  but  the  attention  of  those  in  authority 
must  be  directed  to  the  further  increasing  of  the  capacity  of  the 
limiting  conditions  of  some  of  the  main  arteries.  The  port  of  New 
York  is  the  country's  largest  gateway.  The  general  government 
has  been  at  work  for  years,  and  has  at  last  almost  completed  a  new 
deep  channel  to  sea.  That  channel  is,  however,  for  foreign  com- 
merce. The  harbor  has  another  entrance  from  the  sound  through 
the  East  River ;  this  is  the  channel  for  internal  commerce.  It  is  the 
channel  on  which  three  states — New  York,  Connecticut  and  New 
Jersey — look  directly,  and  it  is  the  one  used  chiefly  by  the  domestic 
ocean  commerce  of  the  Atlantic  States.  Although  much  improved 
over  conditions  existing  twenty  years  ago,  it  is  still  much  restricted 
by  islands,  reefs  and  narrow  channels.  If  any  great  inland  route  is 
to  be  established  it  becomes  the  throat  where  all  traffic  will  be  con- 
gested ;  it  is  the  one  place  which  all  are  interested  in  having  devel- 
oped ;  it  is  one  of  the  improvements  to  be  most  urged  by  this  con- 
vention upon  the  national  authorities. 


ATLANTIC  COASTWISE  CANALS:  THEIR  HISTORY 
AND   PRESENT    STATUS 


By  G.  D.  Luetscher,  Ph.D. 
New  York. 


The  Atlantic  Coast  offers  exceptional  opportunities  for  the 
realization  of  an  efficient  coastwise  water  route  from  Boston  to 
the  Carolinas.  The  construction  of  four  canals,  with  an  aggregate 
length  of  less  than  one  hundred  miles,  will  provide  one  thousand 
miles  of  protected  inland  navigation,  while  the  extension  of  this 
system,  by  means  of  a  canal  across  Florida,  would  connect  the 
vast  Atlantic  coastwise  trade  with  that  of  the  Mississippi. 

This  system  was  partially  realized  more  than  three-quarters 
of  a  century  ago.  The  Chesapeake  Bay  was  connected  with  the 
bays  of  North  Carolina  by  means  of  the  Dismal  Swamp  Canal 
in  1828  and  with  Delaware  Bay  one  year  later,  while  the  Delaware 
River  was  connected  with  Raritan  Bay  in  1838.  No  exceptional 
engineering  difficulties  were  encountered  and  comparatively  few 
locks  had  to  be  constructed  to  overcome  the  rise  and  fall  due  to 
elevations.  The  Delaware  and  Raritan  Canal  required  the  con- 
struction of  fourteen  locks,  but  all  of  these  were  at  the  entrances 
to  the  canal,  so  that  for  the  entire  distance  of  forty-four  miles 
navigation  was  not  impeded  by  a  single  lock.  The  passage  be- 
tween Delaware  and  Chesapeake  bays  was  made  by  the  use  of  three 
locks,  two  of  which  were  at  the  entrances ;  while  the  Chesapeake 
and  Albemarle  Canal,  which  has  monopolized  most  of  the  trade 
of  the  Dismal  Swamp  Canal  since  its  completion  in  i860  has  re- 
duced the  number  of  locks  between  the  Chesapeake  and  the  bays 
of  North  Carolina  from  seven  to  one.  In  fact,  most  of  the  propo- 
sals for  the  construction  of  ship  canals  along  these  routes  assert 
that  locks  can  be  dispensed  with  entirely. 

Notwithstanding  the  increasing  demands  of  the  coastwise  trade, 
the  dimensions  of  these  canals  have  not  been  materially  increased 
since  their  completion  save  in  the  size  of  locks.  The  reason  for 
this  is  clear.  The  canals  had  to  meet  the  competition  of  the  rail- 
roads from  the  very  outset  for  the  trade  which,  at  the  time  of  their 

(92) 


Atlantic  Coastzvisc  Canals 


93 


organization,  they  hoped  to  monopohze.  In  fact,  the  Delaware 
and  Raritan  Canal  was  forced  to  enter  into  a  union  with  the 
Camden  and  Amboy  Railroad  in  the  first  year  of  its  existence  in 
order  to  prevent  immediate  abandonment  of  its  charter  privileges. 
Up  to  1870  the  canals  enjoyed  an  increasing  trade,  but  the  financial 
return  was  not  sufficient  to  warrant  any  undertaking  for  extensive 
improvements. 

The  Present  Dimensions  of  Coastwise  Canals  and  Locks. 


73 

Locks. 

^ 

X 

.c 

.c 

^ 

00 

•a 

p. 

m(L, 

No. 

•0 

^ 

^ 

P 

Oi 

^ 

^ 

Miles. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Delaware         and 

Raritan 

44 

80 

7 

150 

14 

220 

24 

Chesapeake     and 

Delaware 

14 

66 

9 

32 

3 

220 

24 

Dismal  Swamp. .  . 

28 

60 

6 

35 

7 

100 

16J 

Chesapeake     and 

Albemarle 

14 

80 

7h 

2 

I 

220 

40 

Since  1870,  owing  to  the  rapid  improvem,ent  of  the  roadbeds 
of  the  railroads  and  the  traction  power  of  the  engines  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  lack  of  improvements  of  canals  on  the  other,  the  trade 
of  the  latter  has  declined  rapidly.  The  traffic  of  the  Chesapeake 
and  Delaware  Canal,  which  reached  its  maximum  of  1,318,772 
tons  in  1872,  has  fallen  to  639,548  tons  in  1900,  while  the  traffic 
of  the  Delaware  and  Raritan,  which  exceeded  2,000,000  tons  in 
1870,  decreased  approximately  1,000,000  tons  in  less  than  twenty 
years.  Unlike  most  of  the  canals  in  other  sections  of  the  country, 
the  coastwise  canals,  save  the  Delaware  and  Raritan,  have  re- 
mained independent,  but  they  have  abandoned  all  hope  for  revival 
through  independent  action  and  have  turned  to  the  Federal  govern- 
ment for  aid.  It  is  the  main  purpose  of  this  article  to  trace  the 
relation  of  the  Federal  government  to  the  coastwise  canals. 

The  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Canal  has  special  claims  upon 
the  Federal  government  for  several  reasons.  The  construction  of 
a  ship  canal  which  would  permit  the  passage  of  the  largest  vessels 
would  be  of  great  commercial  and  military  value.  It  is  the  latter 
point  which  the  promoters  of  the  canal  emphasized  from  the  begin- 
ning in  their  appeal  for  national  aid.     It  was  first  made  in  1805, 


94'  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

when  Gallatin  recognized  the  force  of  the  claim  and  recommended 
immediate  subscription  on  the  part  of  the  National  government.  But 
the  constitutional  objections  questioning  the  right  of  the  Federal 
government  to  exercise  such  power  were  so  strong  that  both  the 
Senate  and  the  House  bills,  introduced  in  1810  for  that  purpose, 
failed  to  pass.  After  the  War  of  1812,  a  majority  of  the  members 
of  both  Houses  waived  the  constitutional  objections  and  passed  the 
Internal  Improvement  act  of  1817,  but  it  received  the  veto  of 
Madison,  who  still  clung  to  the  constitutional  objection.  Mon- 
roe belonged  to  the  same  school  as  Madison,  and  it  appeared  that 
national  aid  was  doomed  for  another  eight  years.  However,  he 
finally  yielded,  in  1824,  and  within  the  following  five  years  the 
Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Company  received  from  the  National 
government  subscriptions  to  the  extent  of  almost  one-half  million 
dollars.  This  sum,  together  with  the  subscription  of  $175,000 
made  by  the  states  of  Pennsylvania,  Maryland  and  Delaware, 
enabled  the  company  to  complete  the  canal  in  1829. 

When  the  period  of  decline  in  the  traffic  set  in,  the  managers 
started  a  movement  to  arouse  the  interest  of  the  federal  govern- 
ment in  the  plan  of  constructing  a  ship  canal.  This  movement 
began  in  1871,  when  the  National  Commercial  Convention  memo- 
rialized Congress  on  this  subject.  The  government  engineers  were 
instructed  to  examine  routes  and  make  estimate  of  cost  which 
were  published  in  the  annual  report  of  the  chief  of  engineers 
for  1872.  In  the  same  year,  Maryland  chartered  the  Maryland 
and  Delaware  Ship  Canal.  This  company  claims  the  right  of  way 
on  the  Sassafras  route  from  Kennedy's  Mills,  at  the  headwaters 
of  the  Sassafras  River,  to  the  Delaware  River  near  Liston's  Point. 
Ever  since,  this  company  has  been  a  rival  of  the  interests  of  the 
old  canal  in  presenting  to  the  general  government  its  superiority 
as  a  ship  canal  route. 

The  River  and  Harbor  bill  of  1878  directed  the  survey  of  all 
the  routes  which  a  ship  canal  was  likely  to  follow.  The  engineer's 
estimates  and  recommendations  were  to  be  based  upon  the  construc- 
tion of  a  canal  178  feet  wide  at  low  water  and  100  feet  wide  26 
feet  below  mean  water.  The  locks  were  to  be  600  feet  long  and 
40  feet  wide.  Three  routes  were  reported  which  were  desig- 
nated as  the  Northern,  Intermediate  and  Southern.  The  Northern 
route  followed  the  Sassafras  River  already  mentioned,  the  Inter- 


Coastivisc  Canals  95 


mediate  route  entered  Chesapeake  Bay  at  the  Chester  River  and 
Delaware  Bay  at  the  Broadkill  River,  and  the  Southern  route 
made  use  of  the  Choptank  River,  Ferry  Creek,  Manticoke  River, 
and  Broadkill  River.  The  primary  purpose  of  these  proposals 
was  to  furnish  Baltimore  with  a  shorter  route  to  the  sea,  and  hence 
the  utilization  for  that  purpose  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware 
Canal  which  follow^s  the  most  northerly  route  was  not  even  con- 
sidered. Provision  was  again  made,  in  1882,  for  similar  surveys 
with  the  same  end  in  view. 

It  was  not  until  the  survey  of  1894,  made  under  the  direction 
of  L.  Case,  as  chief  engineer,  that  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware 
Canal  claims  met  with  favor.  This  report  lays  emphasis  upon  the 
coastwise  trade  as  against  the  claim  of  Baltimore  for  an  outlet 
to  the  sea,  and  concludes  that  for  this  purpose  the  most  northerly 
route  is  the  most  desirable.  Twelve  years  later  (1906)  Congress 
authorized  the  appointment  of  a  special  commission  which  was 
instructed  "to  examine  and  appraise  the  value  of  the  works  and 
franchises  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Canal  .  .  .  with 
reference  to  the  desirability  of  purchasing  the  said  canal  by  the 
United  States  and  the  construction  over  the  route  of  the  said 
canal  of  a  free  and  open  waterway  having  a  depth  and  capacity 
sufficient  to  accommodate  'the  largest  vessels  afloat  at  mean  low 
water,"  and  also  to  make  an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  the  same 
from  the  surveys  heretofore  made  under  the  direction  of  the 
War  Department.  Of  all  the  other  routes  formerly  proposed,  the 
feasibility  of  the  Sassafras  route  alone  was  to  be  considered  by 
the  commission.  Their  conclusions  with  regard  to  the  advantages 
of  the  two  were  to  be  based  upon  commercial  and  military  con- 
siderations. 

The  commissioners  reported  that  both  routes  were  feasible,  but 
decided  in  favor  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Canal  because 
they  believed  that  this  route  possessed  slight  military  advantages 
and  could  be  constructed  for  two  million  dollars  less  than  the 
Sassafras  Canal.  The  estimates  included  a  valuation  of  the  prop- 
erties and  franchises  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Canal  at 
two  and  one-half  million  dollars,  and  the  franchises  of  the  Sassa- 
fras route  at  one  million  dollars. 

Another  important  link  in  the  inland  coastwise  system  in  which 
the    National    government   has   been    previously    interested    is    the 


96  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

Dismal  Swamp  Canal.     The  promoters  of  this  canal  were  organ- 
ized in   1787,  and  here  again  the  abandonment  of  the  enterprise 
was   prevented   by   the   subscription   of   $200,000  by   the    National 
government,  in  the  Twenties.     Since  that  time  the  company   has 
made  several   attempts  to   improve   the   canal.     In    1856,  $150,000 
were  raised  for  that  purpose,  but  the  work  was  interrupted  by  the 
Civil  War.     In  1867,  the  company  made  another  attempt  to  raise 
$200,000   for   the   purpose   of   widening  the   canal    from:  thirty   to 
sixty   feet,  and   increasing  the   depth   from  five  and  one-half   feet 
to    eight    feet,    which    would    make    it    possible    to    dispense    with 
all    locks    save    at    the    entrances.     This    sum,    howlever,    was    ex- 
hausted   while    the    improvement    planned    was    yet    in    an    unfin- 
ished   state,    and    foreclosure    was    threatened.      At    this     point, 
the    company    again    appealed    to    the    National    government    for 
aid  upon  the  ground  that  the  nation  had  an  interest  in  this  canal. 
The  claim  was  made  that  the  Dismal  Swamp  route  was  preferable 
to  the   Chesapeake  and  Albemarle  route,  which,  since  its  opening 
in   i860,  had  monopolized  most  of  the  trade  because  it  admitted 
boats  of  greater   tonnage.     An  extended   correspondence   between 
the    company    and    the    national    treasury    department    ensued    be- 
tween   187 1    and    1878,   setting   forth   the   financial   interest   of  the 
government  in  the  canal.     A  survey  was  made  in  1878,  but  beyond 
this  nothing  was  accomplished. 

Some  twenty  years  later  the  River  and  Harbor  Act  (August 
7,  1894)  provided:  "For  the  survey  of  the  waterways  through  the 
sounds  of  North  Carolina  and  for  the  survey  of  the  Dismal  Swamp 
Canal  .  .  .  with  a  view  of  obtaining  a  depth  of  nine  feet  and 
the  necessary  width  of  a  ship  canal  .  .  ."  The  report  of  the 
survey,  made  in  accordance  with  this  act,  showed  that  not  more 
than  two  feet  available  water  could  be  depended  upon  in  periods 
of  drought,  and  three  and  one-half  feet  in  wet  seasons,  although 
the  depth  was  much  greater  than  this  except  at  a  few  places.  The 
construction  of  a  canal  with  a  depth  of  ten  feet  and  a  width  of 
eight  feet  at  the  bottom  was  recommended,  and  the  cost  was 
estimated  at  $1,711,380.  This  included  the  construction  of  three 
locks,  the  dredging  of  eighteen  miles  of  canal,  and  the  clearing 
of  Croatan  Sound  and  Paskuotank  River.  The  report  further  de- 
clared that  a  sufficient  amount  of  water  could  be  obtained  from  Lake 
Drummond  for  the  operation  of  the  canal. 


Atlantic  Coastzcisc  Canals  97 

This  survey,  as  the  former  ones,  did  not  materiahze  in  any- 
thing, and  there  is  a  great  question  whether  it  should  in  view  of 
the  fact  that  the  Chesapeake  and  Albemarle  Canal  already  offers  a 
large  part  of  the  trade  an  opportunity  to  follow  a  protected  inland 
route.  This  canal  is  eighty  feet  wide  at  the  top  and  sixty  feet 
at  the  bottom,  and  has  a  depth  of  seven  and  one-half  feet.  Al- 
though the  entire  route  of  the  latter,  including  bays  and  rivers, 
is  considerably  longer  than  the  former,  the  canal  itself  is  six  miles 
shorter  and  passage  is  made  by  the  use  of  only  one  lock.  Ever 
since  its  completion  in  i860  it  has  taken  most  of  the  trade  which 
formerly  followed  the  Dismal  Swamp  route.  In  1871,  the  num- 
ber of  passages  through  the  Chesapeake  and  Albemarle  Canal 
were  twice  those  of  the  Dismal  Swamp  Canal,  and  in  1895,  the 
tonnage  (324,866  tons)  of  the  former  was  almost  fifteen  times 
that  of  the  latter.  Unless  the  Dismal  Swamp  route  can  show  a 
decided  superiority,  the  improvement  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Albe- 
marle route  will  be  the  policy  of  the  future,  especially  since  there 
is  only  a  remote  possibility  of  government  aid  upon  which  the 
revival  of  the  Dismal  Swamp  project  must  depend. 

A  third  important  link  in  the  perfection  of  the  coastwise  sys- 
tem is  the  Delaware  and  Raritan  Canal.  In  1870,  the  traffic  of  this 
canal  exceeded  that  of  any  other  east  of  the  Allegheny  Mountains. 
The  two  million  tons  then  carried  were  composed  chiefly  of  coal 
shipments  from  Philadelphia  and  the  outlet  locks  of  the  Delaware 
Division  Canal  at  Well's  Falls.  When  the  canal  was  leased  by  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  in  1870,  all  the  Schuylkill  coal  traffic  under 
the  control  of  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading  Railroad,  which  in  that 
year  amounted  to  746,661  tons,  had  to  seek  either  the  railroad 
or  the  ocean  voyage  for  points  to  the  north  and  to  the  east.  As 
a  result,  the  tonnage  of  the  canal  decreased  by  one  million  within 
the  next  twenty  years,  while  at  the  present  time  it  is  practically 
abandoned. 

This  condition  has  been  reached  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  no 
other  waterway  has  such  a  commanding  position  with  reference 
to  the  coal  mines  of  Pennsylvania  and  the  coastwise  trade.  In 
1892,  the  Committee  of  Commerce  estimated  the  sound  traffic 
at  3,313,110  tons,  the  Hudson  River  trade  at  7,642,282  tons,  the 
resources  of  the  Jersey  rivers  tributary  to  Raritan  Bay  and  the 
Delaware  and  branches  at  more  than  12,500,000  tons,  and  the  traffic 


98  Tl'c  AntiaJs  of  the  American  Academy 

of  Chesapeake  Bay  at  6,619,424  tons.  In  addition  to  this,  the 
committee  emphasized  the  fact  that  the  mihtary  advantages  of  the 
proposed  canal  would  be  "the  first  link  of  an  interior  waterway 
safe  from  military  attack  and  reaching  from  New  York  Bay  to 
Florida  and  thence  to  the  gulf."  But,  notwithstanding  this  pass- 
ing interest  of  the  federal  government  and  the  support  of  numerous 
associations  in  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey  and  New  York,  the  imme- 
diate future  holds  out  little  hope  that  the  proposed  ship  canal 
will  be  undertaken  by  the  national  government  or  by  private  enter- 
prise. 

The  improvement  of  the  three  canals  which  have  just  been 
described  to  the  dimensions  of  ship  canals  would  furnish  a  pro- 
tected voyage  for  the  coastwise  trade  from  Cape  Cod  to  the 
Carolinas.  Numerous  movements  have  been  started  to  extend 
this  system  by  the  construction  of  canals  through  Florida  and  Cape 
Cod.  The  latter  promontory  is  only  ten  miles  wide  at  a  number 
of  places,  and  a  cut  through  it  is  easy  of  construction ;  in  fact,  the 
claim  is  made  that  dredging  alone  will  accomplish  the  result.  And 
yet,  for  several  centuries,  this  narrow  neck  of  land  has  been  per- 
mitted to  increase  the  distance  between  Boston  and  points  to  the 
West  and  South  between  seventy  and  one  hundred  and  twenty 
miles,  and  to  force  the  commerce  through  shoals  and  fogs  which, 
in  point  of  danger,  are  only  second  to  those  of  Cape  Hatteras.  The 
record  of  loss  for  twenty  years  ending  in  1895  ^s  6^)  lives  and  137 
vessels,  the  value  of  the  latter  is  estimated  at  one  million  and  a  half 
dollars.  In  the  short  period  of  four  years  following  1895,  twenty- 
seven  lives  were  lost  and  twenty-seven  vessels  valued  at  a  quarter 
of  a  million  dollars,  were  wrecked.  This  constitutes  an  average  loss 
of  $6,500  per  month,  and  three  vessels  and  three  lives  for  every 
two  months. 

The  amount  of  traffic  which  has  been  forced  to  follow  this 
circuitous  and  dangerous  route  has  always  been  great  and  promises 
to  increase  steadily  in  the  future.  The  enlarged  Erie  Canal  will 
connect  the  sound  with  the  lakes  of  the  West,  and  the  completion 
of  the  proposed  Cape  Cod  ship  canal  will  enable  Boston  to  com- 
pete for  the  trade  of  the  ^^'est.  The  claim  is  made  that  the  freight 
which  railroads  bring  to  Jersey  City,  and  which  is  bound  for  Bos- 
ton, will  be  transported  at  one-third  the  rate  now  charged  by 
railroads.  To  this  we  must  add  the  advantage  to  the  extensive 
commerce  with  the  ports  to  the  south  of  New  York  City. 


Atlantic  Coastwise  Canals  99 

In  view  of  these  facts,  the  postponement  of  completion  of  this 
canal  to  the  opening  years  of  the  Twentieth  century  constitutes  one 
of  the  greatest  surprises  in  the  history  of  canal  construction, 
especially  since  the  proposed  cut  has  received  attention  for  more 
than  two  centuries.  Agitation  was  started  by  the  little  town  of 
Sandwich,  in  1676.  The  project  was  encouraged  by  a  survey  under 
the  direction  of  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts,  in  1697,  and 
again,  in  1776,  when  General  Machin  was  engaged  to  make  a 
survey.  The  Revolution  intervened  and  the  plan  was  postponed 
until  1824,  when  the  federal  government  engineers  were  directed 
to  make  surveys.  Another  federal  survey  was  ordered  in  i860, 
but  again  postponed  until  1875,  when  General  Foster,  of  the  United 
States  Engineers,  made  a  thorough  examination  and  recommended 
the  abandonment  of  the  former  lock  navigation  proposals  in  favor 
of  a  deep-cut  ship  canal.  A  number  of  favorable  congressional 
reports  followed  some  ten  years  later,  but  all  the  work  of  the 
national  government  in  the  nineteenth  century,  like  the  agitation 
of  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  in  the  eighteenth  century,  came 
to  naught. 

Finally,  a  few  enterprising  individuals  formed  "The  Boston. 
Cape  Cod  and  New  York  Canal  Company."  A  charter  was  ob- 
tained from  the  Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts,  permitting  a 
capitalization  of  $6,000,000.  Under  the  direction  of  this  com- 
pany, surveys  have  already  been  made  and  a  route  selected  which, 
it  is  believed,  will  be  free  from  rocks.  The  managers  are  "confi- 
dent that  two  years  and  a'  half  will  witness  the  completion  and 
opening  of  the  waterway."^ 

The  full  value  of  this  coastwise  system  will  not  be  realized 
until  a  canal  is  constructed  across  Florida.  Agitation  in  favor 
of  such  a  canal  began  as  early  as  1826,  when  the  general  govern- 
mtnt  ordered  surveys  of  two  routes  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
necting the  Atlantic  coast  trade  with  the  Mississippi.  One  of 
the  routes  surveyed  followed  the  St.  Mary's  and  Apalachicola 
rivers  a  distance  of  some  200  miles,  while  the  second  route,  about 
fifty  miles  shorter,  proposed  to  utilize  St.  John's  River.  The  re- 
port of  the  engineers  that  the  canal  would  have  to  be  9  feet  deep 
and  the  locks  250  feet  long  and  50  feet  wide  in  order  to  admit 
the  boats  of  the  Mississippi — which  dimensions  were  double  those 

»Fergiis   Crane,   The   Cape   Cod    Canal  'Eclectic  Ma?.   14fi.  277-82). 


100  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

planned — did  not  encourage  immediate  activity  toward  the  realiza- 
tion of  the  proposal. 

In  1852,  Congress  ordered  a  survey  of  a  route  which  was  to 
utilize  the  St.  John's  and  Hillsboro  rivers,  whereby  it  was  proposed 
to  cut  down  the  distance  to  115  miles.  The  canal  was  to  be  6  feet 
in  depth  and  the  locks  116  feet  in  length,  and  hence,  the  same 
objection  applied  to  this  plan  as  to  the  former.  Several  surveys 
were  again  made  in  the  Seventies  and  the  Eighties  resulting  in  the 
claim  that  a  canal  with  twelve  feet  depth  could  be  constructed 
by  following  the  Valley  of  the  Oklawaha  and  connecting  it  with 
the  lower  part  of  the  St.  John's.  This  route  would  necessitate  a 
canal  fifty  miles  longer  than  the  one  proposed  in  the  former  survey, 
but  it  would  shorten  the  distance  across  Florida  by  twenty  miles. 
Since  that  time,  there  have  been  several  congressional  reports,  but 
all  their  recommendations  are  based  upon  previous  surveys. 

This  brief  survey  of  the  history  and  present  status  of  the  above 
canals  brings  out  clearly  several  important  facts.  The  financial 
condition  of  the  canal  companies  has  at  no  time  during  their 
history  permitted  them  to  enter  upon  plans  for  improvements  pro- 
viding for  material  enlargement  of  the  canals  beyond  their  original 
dimensions.  Hence,  since  the  beginning  of  the  decline  in  the 
traffic  in  the  Seventies,  the  companies  have  looked  to  the  Federal 
government  to  assume  direction  and  financial  responsibility  in  all 
proposed  improvements.  The  Federal  government  has  accepted  this 
responsibility  to  the  extent  of  ordering  numerous  surveys  which 
have  been  set  forth  in  voluminous  reports.  But  not  a  single  step 
has  been  taken  beyond  this  point,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
the  reports  have  declared  the  proposed  works  entirely  feasible. 

The  cause  of  this  situation  is  quite  obvious.  The  government 
is  confronted  with  claims  from  all  sections  of  the  country.  Many 
of  these  are  worthy,  but  not  all  of  them  can  be  constructed  at  one 
time.  It  rests  with  the  advocates  of  favored  schemes  to  come  to 
some  agreement  resulting  in  the  selection  of  some  specific  improve- 
ments to  be  constructed  at  one  time.  This  has  not  been  done  in 
the  past,  and  as  a  consequence  the  government  has  doled  out  small 
sums  to  a  vast  number  of  schemes  without  any  results.  Nowhere 
is  this  baneful  effect  of  particularistic  action  more  clearly  shown 
than  in  the  methods  employed  during  the  last  three  decades  toward 
the   perfection   of   the   Atlantic   coastwise   system   by   government 


Atlantic  Coastzcisc  Canals  loi 

aid.     This  system  presents  a  distinct  unit,  but  up  to  the  present 
time  each  canal  company  has  pushed  its  claim  separately. 

However,  we  need  not  conclude  this  article  with  such  a  pessi- 
mistic view.  On  November  19,  1907,  there  assembled  in  Philadel- 
phia delegates  from  all  the  Atlantic  states  to  consider  the  question 
of  united  action  for  the  realization  of  an  inland  water  route  from 
Maine  to  the  Carolinas.  On  the  following  day,  the  conference 
formed  a  permanent  organization  called  "The  Atlantic  Deeper 
Waterways  Association."  Several  decisions  of  this  conference 
are  significant.  They  adopted  resolutions  advocating  the  con- 
struction of  the  entire  system  by  the  Federal  government,  and 
lamented  the  fact  that  the  construction  of  the  proposed  Cape 
Cod  Ship  Canal  had  been  left  to  private  enterprise,  while  several 
of  the  delegates  voiced  the  sentiment  that  the  entire  system 
should  be  free  from  the  payment  of  toll.  The  association,  however, 
showed  that  they  were  not  prepared  to  recommend  the  comple- 
tion of  one  link  at  one  time,  for  they  voted  down  the  proposition 
that  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Canal  should  be  converted  into 
a  ship  canal  before  undertaking  other  works. 


THE  ANTHRACITE-TIDEWATER  CANALS 


By  Chester  Lloyd  Jones,  Ph.D., 

Instructor  in  Political  Science,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia. 


The  coal-carrying  canals  were  constructed  during  the  period^ 
of  great  national  interest  in  the  opening  of  water  routes  to  the  West. 
Unlike  the  larger  projects,  they  were  intended  to  supply  trans- 
portation to  a  special  interest,  and  upon  the  development  of  that 
interest — the  coal  trade — depended  their  whole  prosperity.  Their 
construction  took  place  at  a  time  when  public  interest  in  water- 
ways was  at  its  height.  Into  the  history  of  each  enters  much  of  the 
speculative  element  which  attended  the  construction  of  all  the 
early  projects  for  furnishing  cheap  outlets  for  the  undeveloped 
national  resources.  With  the  advent  of  the  railroad  as  a  trans- 
porter of  coal  their  operation  was  found  less  and  less  profitable, 
and  they  have  gradually  dropped  out  of  importance  as  industrial 
agents. 

It  is  the  object  of  this  paper  to  review  the  history  of  these 
waterways  and  to  summarize  the  conditions  which  determine  whether 
or  not  they  may  again  become  available  under  the  new  economic 
conditions  which  have  developed  or  seem  likely  to  develop. 

The  Delazvarc  and  Hudson  Canal 

The  construction  of  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal  was 
authorized  by  the  joint  action  of  the  legislatures  of  Pennsylvania 
and  New  York  in  the  sessions  of  1822-3.  The  company  became  a 
banking  concern  and  a  large  landholder — the  latter  through  the 
desire  to  control  tonnage  for  its  waterway. 

The  period  in  which  the  project  was  launched  was  cne  of 
great  speculation  in  public  improvements,  and  the  stock  was  sub- 
scribed to  the  full  amount  by  two  o'clock  of  the  first  day  on  which 
the  books  were  opened.  The  original  plan  had  been  for  a  canal 
and  slackwater  navigation,  but  an  improvement,  to  consist  of  a 
canal  alone,  and  finally  of  a  canal  and  a  railroad  was  substituted. 
The  ^rst  through  shipments  of  coal  took  place  early  in  1829.    The 

>lhe  historical  material  used  in  this  article  is  summanizetl   from  a  monograph  preface  for 
the  CarncRie  Institution  of  Washington  by  the  author. 

(102) 


Map  of  Susquehanna  and  Anthracite-Tidewater  Canals. 


The  Anthracite  Tide-Water  Canals  103 

coal  was  brought  down  to  the  canal  from  the  mines  at  Carbondale 
at  first  by  teams  at  a  cost  of  from  $2.25  to  $2.75  per  ton,  later  a 
substructure  of   timber   faced   "with   rolled    iron   plates     .... 
fastened     .     .     .     with  screws"  was  used.     The  coal  traffic  on  the 
canal  in  its  early  years  received  an  important  supplement  from  the 
general  trade,  which  was  a  greater  factor  than  on  any  of  the  other 
coal  canals ;  but  the  income  from  it  never  equaled  the  running  ex- 
penses of  the  waterway.     The  coal  market  was  so  limited  that  not 
until  after  the  results  of  the  panic  of  1837  had  disappeared  was  the 
company   able  to   declare   dividends.     Then  the   trade   necessitated 
the  enlargement  of  the  waterway — originally  intended   for  thirty- 
ton   cargoes,  and  it  was  improved  to  accommodate  forty  and  eighteen- 
tweniieths  tons  in  1844,  fifty  tons  in  1846,  ninety-eight  tons  in  1850, 
140  tons  in  1853.    INIeanwhile  the  railroad  to  the  head  of  navigation 
had  undergone  several  improvements  to  increase  its  capacity.     In 
1847  the  first  important  contract  was  entered  into  to  get  the  coal 
of  other  companies,  thus  greatly  increasing  both  tonnage  and  tolls. 
In  the  years  following  1840  the  company  enjoyed  a  period  of 
great  prosperity.     In   1843  all  outstanding  bonds  were  paid.     By 
1845   almost  all  the  banking  capital  had  been   redeemed   and  the 
loans   of   credit  by   New   York  were   canceled   in    1848  and    1850. 
This  left  the  company  entirely  free  from  debt.    Soon  after,  however, 
the  desire  to  expand  to  other  markets  led  to  the  construction  of  rail- 
roads  and  to  new  bond  issues.     The  greatest   railroad   expansion 
comes,  however,  after  1861,  and  up  to  1865  the  stockholders  found 
their  canal  a  rich  source  of  income.     How  valuable  a  property  it 
was  may  be  judged  by  the  following  typical  instances  of  dividends 
received:  1840,  11  per  cent;  1847,  22  per  cent;  1855,  18  per  cent; 
1858,  sV^  per  cent  (due  to  railroad  expenditures)  ;  i860,  7  per  cent; 
1861,  9  per  cent;  1862,  iiy.  per  cent;  1863,  34  per  cent;  1864,  31 
per  cent,  and  1867,  16  per  cent.     The  decrease  after  1864  was  due 
to  the  transfer  of  much  of  the  tonnage  to  railroad  routes.     The 
prosperity  was   due   in   large   degree — in   fact   mainly — to   the  toll 
on   coal   of  other  companies.     The  first  contracts   for  this  service 
were  made  in   1849,  and  soon  furnished  an  important  part  of  the 
income.     By  1854  the  tolls  paid  by  the  Pennsylvania  Coal  Company, 
the     chief     independent     company,     for     the     year     amounted     to 

$541,378.07. 

An  unfortunate  dispute  as  to  this  traffic  arose  as  to  the  tolls 


104  ^^^'-^  ■^'^'^'^^■s  of  the  .liiicrican  Academy 

chargeable  after  the  enlargement  of  the  canal.  The  contest  was 
taken  before  the  courts  in  1856,  and  it  dragged  on  until  1863,  when 
the  court  gave  an  award  for  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal  Com- 
pany amounting  to  $350,000.  The  legal  victory  was,  in  fact,  a  great 
economic  misfortune.  After  the  adverse  decision  the  shipping  of 
coal  by  the  canal  was  cut  off  by  the  independent  company,  and  its 
traffic  turned  to  the  Erie  Railroad,  which,  in  1866,  carried  almost 
all  the  coal  formerly  sent  over  the  canal  by  the  Pennsylvania  Coal  ^ 
Company.  The  diversion  of  this  traffic  dealt  a  deathblow  to  the 
prosperity  of  the  canal.  In  the  two  years  1865  and  1866  the 
company  lost  more  than  the  entire  amount  of  their  claim  for  extra 
toll,  and  the  canal  income  fell  from  about  two  and  a  half  times  the 
expenses  for  repair  and  maintenance  to  a  little  over  one-fourth  of 
their  amount. 

At  once  the  policy  of  the  canal  company  was  changed.  An 
attempt  was  made  to  greatly  extend  their  railroad  holdings,  and 
thus  to  win  back  the  traffic  they  had  lost  and  to  obtain  access  to 
new  markets.  In  1867  a  railroad  outlet  through  Scranton  was 
secured  by  the  absorption  of  the  Union  Coal  Company.  Another 
company,  with  coal  lands  and  a  railroad  connection  across  the 
Susquehanna,  was  purchased,  giving  an  outlet  to  Baltimore  and 
to  Jersey  City.  In  1868  a  contract  with  the  Erie  was  made  to 
build  a  line  to  give  access  to  the  Rochester  and  Bufifalo  markets. 
Other  branch  roads  were  provided  for,  and  an  exchange  of  stock 
with  the  Erie  brought  about  the  identity  of  interests  of  those  two 
companies.  The  Albany  and  Susquehanna  Railroad  was  leased  in 
perpetuity  in  1869,  and  further  access  to  Baltimore  acquired.  Three 
years  later  the  New  York  and  Canada  Railroad  was  put  under  con- 
struction to  tap  the  Montreal  market. 

By  the  time  of  the  panic  of  1873  the  company  was  in  the  full 
swing  of  the  expansionist  movement.  Railroads  had  superseded  the 
canal  in  the  transportation  interests  of  the  company.  How  thor- 
ough had  been  this  transformation  in  the  five  years  since  1867 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  by  1872  all  statistics  of  canal  traffic  dis- 
appear from  the  reports  and  the  only  regular  mention  of  the  canal 
is  in  the  entry  of  canal  tolls  in  the  income  sheet. 

The  history  of  the  canal  since  1872  is  an  uneventful  one  of 
decline  and  abandonment.  The  coal  shipments  were  practically  con- 
fined to  those  made  by  the  company  and  fell  off  yearly.     In  1897, 


The  Anthracite  Tide-Water  Canals  105 

preparatory  to  final  abandonment,  a  part  of  the  canal  assets  were, 
charged  off  to  profit  and  loss  and  subtracted  from  the  surplus.  The' 
following  year  the  "managers  .  .  .  decided  ...  to  cease 
operating  the  canal,  ...  the  cost  of  transportation  is  too  great 
as  compared  with  other  methods."  Since  then  the  damages  made  by 
freshets  have  not  been  repaired  and  "the  cost  of  the  canal  .  .  . 
has  been  charged  off  and  no  longer  stands  as  an  asset." 

The  Morris  Canal  Company 

Least  successful  of  the  coal  carrying  waterways  was  the  Morris 
Canal— one  which,  even  had  railways  not  made  competition  by  the 
route  impracticable,  would  have  had  a  hard  time  competing  with  the 
other  water  routes  to  the  seaboard.  The  claims  of  the  promoters 
of  the  enterprise  were  by  contrast  greater.  They  expected  the  Mor- 
ris Canal  to  secure  a  monopoly  of  the  trade  of  the  west  to  New 
York,  to  control  all  the  coal  trade  from  the  Lehigh  region  to 
tidewater  and  to  develop  along  its  route  the  greatest  manufacturing 
district  of  the  new  world.  The  canal  was  first  projected  as  a  state 
work,  but  in  1824  was  given  to  a  private  company.  The  physical 
difficulties  to  be  surmounted  were  greater  than  in  any  of  the  other 
projects.  The  rise  and  fall  to  be  overcome  was  reported  as  1,730 
feet,  a  forbidding  distance,  of  which  1,470  feet  must  be  overcome 
by  inclined  planes  instead  of  locks. 

The  high  tide  of  speculation  at  which  the  canal  project  was 
started  brought  offers  of  subscription  of  $20,000,000  to  the  $1,000,- 
000  of  stock  offered  in  the  spring  of  1825.  Public  confidence  soon- 
fell  away  and  bv  1828  over  one-third  of  the  stock  was  forfeited, 
through  non-payment  of  assessments.  The  financial  straits  of  the 
company  were  relieved  by  loans  abroad,  but  the  work  dragged,  and 
the  first  boat  did  not  pass  to  Newark  until  the  fall  of  1831.  Even 
after  the  canal  was  in  working  order  it  was  difficult  to  borrow 
money  to  fit  out  boats  for  use  thereon.  Financial  difficulties  con- 
tinued until  the  next  period  of  speculation  preceding  the  panic  of 
1837.  Additions  to  stock  authorized  by  the  legislature  in  1835 
were  eagerlv  subscribed  for,  the  forfeited  shares  were  easily  sold 
at  par,  and  in  1836  with  this  money  the  canal  was  completed  to  Jer- 
sey city.  The  directors  boasted  that  in  one  year  their  financial 
operations  had  put  the  company  in  a  position  to  discharge  all  debts 
"from  their  own  capital  and  resources"  and  still  have  $1,000,000 


io6  TJie  Amials  of  the  American  Academy 

for  banking  purposes.  These  finances,  however,  were  largely  con- 
cerned with  "notes  of  other  banks  equal  to  specie,"  and  when  the 
panic  of  1837  came  it  forced  the  company  again  into  embarrassment. 

A  twenty-five  ton  canal,  it  was  evident,  was  inadequate  to 
maintain  itself.  Enlargement  to  a  capacity  of  fifty-four  tons  was 
attempted,  but  while  the  improvement  was  still  only  under  way  the 
company  was  foiled  into  bankruptcy,  and  in  1844  was  sold  to  satisfy 
a  mortgage. 

The  purchasers  reorganized  the  company  by  consolidating  the 
old  common  stock  and  issuing  preferred  upon  which  demands 
of  10  per  cent  w^ere  guaranteed.  The  new  company  continued  the 
improvements  on  the  canal  and  the  enlargement  of  the  planes  which, 
when  they  were  acquired,  passed  boats  only  at  one-fourth  the  speed 
of  the  lift  locks.  Up  to  this  time  no  development  such  as  had  been 
hoped  for  in  the  through  coal  tvade  to  tide  had  taken  place.  In 
1847  even,  only  17,885  tons  reached  Newark,  and  upon  all  through 
trade  there  was  no  profit.  An  enlargement  to  seventy-ton  capacity 
w^as  next  attempted.  By  1856  most  of  the  planes  on  the  west  slope, 
where  the  chief  lifting  was  to  be  done,  had  been  enlarged  and  a 
depth  of  five  feet  of  water  attained.  At  last  the  tide  seemed  to 
have  turned — the  canal  had  been  quadrupled  in  capacity  and  boats 
could  be  passed  carrying  sixty-five  to  seventy  tons.  Shipping 
facilities  on  the  Delaware  were  improved  and  arrangements  made 
to  get  coal  from  the  Lehigh  Valley  Railroad  as  well  as  from  the 
Lehigh  Canal.  Finally,  in  1859,  the  sale  of  the  Delaware  Division 
by  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  to  a  private  company  made  possible 
a  combination   as  to  toll   rates   which  promised   increased   income. 

The  outlook  for  the  Morris  Canal  at  the  outbreak  of  t\ie  Civil 
War  was  therefore  more  encouraging  than  at  any  other  time  dur- 
ing its  historv.  The  war  period  proved  for  it,  as  for  other  coal- 
carrying  routes,  a  period  of  rich  harvest.  The  total  tonnage  ros~ 
from  554,034  tons  in  1858  to  the  highwater  mark  of  72t^S)2'J  in 
1864.  More  coal  was  oflFered  than  could  be  carried,  though  the 
boats  were  pressed  to  the  limit  of  their  capacity.  The  coal  tonnage 
rose  from  350,331  tons  in  1859  to  459-175  tons  in  1866.  an  increase 
which,  with  the  rise  in  tolls,  brought  dividends  never  before  or 
afterward  approached  in  the  history  of  the  company.  Tlie  highest 
profits  were  reached  in  1864,  when  10  per  cent  was  paid  on  both 
common  and  preferred  stock.     The  period  of  prosperity  was  soon 


The  Anthracite  Tide-Water  Canals  107 

brought  to  an  end.  The  railroads,  heretofore  the  feeders  of  the 
canal,  now  became  its  competitors.  This  influence  first  began  to 
be  felt  in  1866,  when  the  Morris  and  Essex  Railway  began  to 
supply  with  coal  part  of  the  territory  formerly  reached  by  the  canal. 
To  counteract  the  competition  new  enlargements  were  put  under 
way  and  special  inducements  offered  to  boatmen  to  stay  on  the  canal 
in  the  coal  trade.  But  the  rail  rates,  especially  the  rate  wars,  soon 
cut  off  all  profits,  and  in  1870  the  company  asked  the  legislature  for 
permission  to  lease  the  canal  and  its  properties.  Permission  was 
granted.  Early  in  1871  the  Lehigh  Valley  Railroad  leased  the 
canal  and  its  important  terminal  facilities  in  Jersey  City  for  999 
years.  The  subsequent  service  rendered  by  the  canal  has  been  a 
decreasing  one.  Only  in  two  years  (1883  and  1884)  after  1870 
has  the  tonnage  risen  above  300,000  tons.  By  1888  the  trade  had 
become  "almost  exclusively"  local.  The  flood  of  1902  on  the  Lehigh 
finally  closed  the  western  end  of  the  canal,  and  it  is  now  no  longer 
open  for  use  except  for  the  local  trade  and  for  coal  delivered  to  it 
by  railroad. 

Bv  its  original  size  and  by  the  physical  difificulties  to  be  over- 
come the  Morris  Canal  was  from  the  first  seriously  handicapped 
as  a  route  for  the  through  trade.  The  part  it  played  was  conse- 
quently a  disappointing  one. 

TJw  Delaware  Division  Canal 

The  object  of  this  detached  portion  of  the  state  works  of 
Pennsylvania,  unlike  that  of  the  system  which  was  to  tap  the  trade 
of  the  west,  was  to  supplement  works  already  under  way — the 
Lehigh  improvements,  with  which  interests  it  has  now  become 
merged.  It  was  thus  built  with  the  definite  thought  that  its  value 
should  be  found  in  service  to  the  coal  traffic.  The  waterway  was 
constructed  in  the  years  1827-1830,  though  navigation  was  still  in- 
complete at  the  end  of  1831.  Faulty  construction,  bad  judgment  in 
determining  the  size  to  be  given  the  canal  and  the  interstate  jeal- 
ousies of  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania  hindered  the  usefulness  of 
the  waterway.  New  Jersey  was  reluctant  to  yield  the  use  of  the 
Delaware  as  a  feeder,  and  Pennsylvania  forced  traffic  through  an 
artificial  route  to  Bristol  for  fear  an  outlet  lock  to  the  Delaware 
and  Raritan  would  divert  the  profits  from  her  citizens  to  those  of 
New  Jersey.     The   dimensions  of  the  canal   locks  were  but  half 


io8  The  Annals  of  the  American  Acadeniy 

those  of  the  Lehigh,  and  transshipment  was  thus  necessary,  or  the 
use  of  small  boats  suitable  to  the  Delaware.  Recommendations  that 
the  canal  be  made  uniform  with  the  Lehigh  remained  unheeded  by 
the  legislature  until  railroad  competition  began  to  threaten  both  the 
New  York  and  Philadelphia  markets.  Then  improvements  were 
put  under  way,  but  were  not  completed  when  the  canal  was  sold 
with  the  other  state  works  undisposed  of,  to  the  Sunbury  and  Erie 
Railroad  in  1857. 

An  independent  company  took  over  the  canal  the  following 
summer  and  operated  it  for  nine  years.  The  improvement  begun 
by  the  state  was  completed,  but  due  to  failure  to  come  to  amicable 
arrangements  with  the  other  waterways  the  canal  did  not  share  the 
phenomenal  prosperity  enjoyed  elsewhere  during  the  Civil  War. 
The  lack  of  harmony  finally  brought  a  proposal  to  buy  the  canal 
from  the  Lehigh  Coal  and  Navigation  Company,  which  was  accepted 
by  the  Delaware  Division  Canal  Company  in  1866. 

The  Lehigh  Coal  and  Navigation  Company 

The  plans  to  develop  the  mining  lands  on  the  Lehigh  by  means 
of  a  canal  were  developed  earlier  than  the  other  projects  alread}' 
discussed.  Indeed  the  Morris  and  Delaware  canals  were  built 
largely  as  supplements  to  the  Lehigh  improvements. 

Numerous  unsuccessful  ventures  dating  back  as  far  as  1793 
prefaced  the  successful  completion  of  a  waterway  down  the  Lehigh 
in  1820.  The  coal  was  floated  down  in  arks  by  means  of  artificial 
freshets.  The  tonnage  grew  rapidly,  but  was  interfered  with  by 
the  expense  of  constructing  new  arks  for  each  trip,  as  they  could 
not  be  returned  up  the  river,  but  were  broken  up  on  arrival  at 
Philadelphia.  Since  1825  also  an  uninterrupted  slackwater  naviga- 
tion had  tapped  the  Schuylkill  region.  For  these  reasons  an  im- 
provement of  the  w^aterway  to  a  slackwater  navigation  up  to  Mauch 
Chunk  was  determined  upon,  especially  as  the  state  had  committed 
itself  to  the  improvement  of  the  Delaware.  The  canal  was  able  to 
accommodate  boats  of  120  tons  by  1829.  Upon  the  completion  of 
the  Delaware  Division  the  use  of  arks  \vas  gradually  abandoned 
and  permanent  boats  substituted.  In  the  years  following  1835  other 
slackwater  improvements  were  introduced  above  Mauch  Chunk  and 
a  railroad  was  substituted  for  the  highest  portion  of  the  route. 

The  extensions  were  hardly  completed  when  a  disastrous  flood 


TJie  Anthracite  Tidc-lVatcr  Canals  109 

almost  wrecked  the  company  in  1840.  A  few  years  put  it  on  its 
feet,  however,  and  the  period  1840-1867  proved  here,  as  on  the 
Delaware  and  Hudson,  one  of  exceptional  prosperity,  even  the 
financial  stringency  of  1857,  though  it  caused  grumbling,  did  not 
cut  down  the  dividend-paying  ability  of  the  company. 

The  coal  tonnage,  which  had  risen  from  365  tons  in  1820  to 
225,585  tons  in  1840,  steadily  grew  to  1,276,367  tons  in  1855.  This 
was  the  period  of  the  company's  history  during  which  its  canal  in- 
terests were  most  prominent  in  the  minds  of  the  managers.  It  was 
even  planned  to  give  up  the  mining  of  coal  by  leasing  those  prop- 
erties and  making  the  company  a  navigation  company  in  a  more 
confined  sense.  A  change  in  this  policy  came  with  the  year  1856, 
when  the  Lehigh  Valley  Railroad  paralleled  the  navigation,  neces- 
sitating reduction  in  toll  rates  and  involving  a  diminution  !n  ton- 
nage. As  a  result  the  managers  report  in  1859:  "The  company  must 
look  for  their  remuneration  to  the  augmented  production  of  the 
mines  .  .  .  from  which  to  derive  a  revenue."  The  impor- 
tance of  railroad  connections  was  also  increased. 

During  the  Civil  War  the  necessity  for  turning  to  lines  of 
activity  other  than  the  exploitation  of  the  canal  was  not  empliasized 
to  the  extent  it  would  have  been  but  for  the  great  increase  in  demand 
for  coal  which,  notwithstanding  the  railroad  competition,  gave  the 
canal  more  traffic  than  it  was  prepared  to  handle.  Consequently 
the  war  years  show  profits  unapproached  before  that  time,  though 
freshets,  strikes  and  rate  wars,  and  in  1862  a  disastrous  flood,  cut 
down  the  profits  that  might  have  been  reaped. 

The  Lehigh  Company  was  not  ignorant  of  the  fact  that  the 
railway  development  in  progress  threatened  its  prosperitv,  and 
even  in  these  years  of  exceptional  dividends  took  steps  to  counteract 
the  coming  disadvantages  under  which  it  would  have  to  work.  Ex- 
tensive coal  lands  were  purchased,  the  smaller  tributary  railwavs 
absorbed  and  an  extension  of  the  Lehigh  and  Susquehanna  Rail- 
way— till  now  a  feeder  to  the  canal  only — was  made  from  Mauch 
Chunk  to  Easton  to  compete  with  the  Lehigh  A^alley  Railroad.  The 
company  entered  into  the  strife  for  tonnage  and  markets  that 
absorbed  the  interest  of  the  coal  transportating  routes  in  1860- 
70.  As  a  part  of  this  policy  the  Delaware  Division  Canal  was 
acquired  in  1866.  In  making  these  extensions  the  corporation 
outran  its  credit,  and  in  1870  found  itself  facing  the  possibility  of 


no  The  Annals  of  the  .liiicrican  Academy 

a  combination  of  the  railroads  across  New  Jersey,  which  would 
leave  it  without  a  rail  outlet  to  New  York.  Both  financial  and 
strategic  reasons  counseled  that  an  alliance  be  made  with  the  Cen- 
tral Railroad  of  New  Jersey,  the  only  independent  outlet  remaming. 
For  these  reasons  the  railroad  properties  were  leased  to  the  Central 
Railroad  of  New  Jersey  in  March,  187 1,  for  a  rental  of  one-third 
of  the  gross  receipts  on  the  line.  For  the  time  the  Lehigh  Com- 
pany again  became  "a  coal  and  navigation  company  ...  as 
during  the  period  of  (their)  greatest  prosperity."  It  had  thus  got- 
ten rid  of  part  of  its  financial  responsibility  before  the  panic  of  1873. 
When  that  came  the  company  was  further  embarrassed  and  was 
forced  to  sell  its  Wyoming  coal  holdings  to  a  company  allied  with 
the  Central  Railroad,  which  latter  corporation  also  leased  all  other 
properties  of  the  Lehigh  Company,  including  its  two  canals,  m  De- 
cember 1873.  This  agreement  removed  the  Lehigh  Company  from 
active  business  operations  until  1877,  when  the  Central  Railroad 
went  into  the  hands  of  a  receiver,  and  the  leased  properties,  with 
the  exception  of  the  railroad,  were  returned  to  the  owners.  The 
return  was  by  no  means  a  misfortune,  for  the  lessees  had  expended 
over  $1,100,000  in  improvements  upon  the  property  which  now 
returned  to  the  owners  without  cost  to  them. 

The  relative  importance  of  the  company's  properties  had  now 
changed  radically.  The  majority  of  the  capital  was  in  the  railroad 
■ — the  rent  from  which  formed  the  chief  item  of  income.  Next  in 
value  were  the  mines,  and  last,  the  canal.  The  canal  tonnage  since 
this  period  has  gradually  fallen  with  the  increase  of  railroad  con- 
.nections  to  New  York,  the  lowering  of  rates  and  the  unfavorable 
terms  granted  on  certain  routes — notably  the  Delaware  and  Raritan 
Canal — making  through  trade  in  competitivon  with  the  railroads 
unprofitable. 

The  success  of  operations  is  shown  by  the  course  of  profits. 
From  the  time  when  the  company  again  assumed  control  in  1877 
up  to  1884  the  yield  varied,  showing  a  gradual  increase  up  to 
$276,106.20  in  the  latter  year.  After  that  profits  gradually  decreased 
to  1893,  when  they  reached  $16,986.77.  Since  then  there  have  been 
small  profits  and  small  losses  on  operation.  A  disastrous  flood  in 
1902  necessitated  increased  repairs,  and  by  cutting  oflf  tonnage 
helped  to  bring  deficits. 

At  present  the  canal  is  operated  with  a  tonnage  of  240,151 
tons   (1906). 


The  Anthracite  Tide-Water  Canals  iii 

The  Schuylkill  Canal 

The  Schuylkill  Canal  is  an  intermediate  term  between  the 
distinctively  coal-carrying  routes  and  the  canals  to  tap  the  trade 
of  the  West.  Originally  planned  with  the  latter  object  in  view, 
its  traffic  was  almost  from  the  first  chiefly  coal.  The  construc- 
tion for  boats  of  twenty-five  tons,  with  a  depth  of  three  feet,  took 
place  in  the  years  1818-25.  In  1832,  to  accommodate  the  growing 
coal  trade,  it  was  enlarged  to  eighty  tons  capacity,  and  in  1845-47 
to  170  tons.  Even  in  the  latter  year,  however,  the  coal  traffic  was 
only  6,500  tons.  Beginning  with  1832  the  canal  had  a  practical 
monopoly  on  the  coal  trade  from  the  district  it  served,  and  for  the 
next  few  years  showed  handsome  profits.  The  stock  rose  to 
three  and  one-half  times  its  par  value,  a  figure  till  then  unprece- 
dented in  the  history  of  American  joint-stock  companies.  The 
end  of  the  prosperity  of  the  route  was  foreshadowed  in  1842,  when 
the  Philadelphia  and  Reading  Railway  was  completed  from  the  Falls 
of  the  Schuylkill  to  Port  Richmond.  This,  with  the  other  connec- 
tions, gave  a  through  rail  route  to  the  coal  mines.  The  enlargement 
■above  mentioned  and  serious  floods  brought  financial  embarrassment, 
necessitating  a  reorganization  of  the  company  in  1852.  In  1861 
the  Reading  Railroad  began  to  work  for  the  monopoly  of  the  trade 
by  buying  up  the  branch  coal  roads.  The  canal  company  adopted 
similar  tactics  and  secured  favorable  tonnage  contracts  for  ten 
vears,  and  satisfactory  dividends  were  again  resumed  in  1866-67. 
The  independent  existence  of  the  canal  company  was  brought  to 
an  end  in  1870  by  the  continuance  of  the  Reading's  plan  to  capture 
.the  avenues  of  coal  supply  from  the  Schuylkill  region  to  Philadel- 
phia. The  canal  and  its  properties  in  this  year  were  leased  to  the 
Reading  for  999  years,  at  a  yearly  rental  of  $655,000.  Since  that 
time  no  important  expenditures  have  been  made  to  improve  the 
canal,  and  through  traffic  has  practically  ceased. 

Historical  Rei'iew  Summarized 

In  all  of  the  waterways,  the  history  of  which  has  been  re- 
viewed, the  main  trade  has  been  coal.  The  general  trade  has  been 
negligible  from  the  standpoint  of  profits,  with  the  exception,  per- 
haps, of  the  trade  in  iron  ore  on  the  Lehigh  and  Morris  Canals. 

The  canals  fall  into  two  classes — the  Morris  and  the  Delaware 


112 


The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 


and  Hudson;  and  the  Lehigh,  the  Schuylkill,  and  the  Delaware 
Division.  The  first  group  involved  carrying  all  through  freight 
over  heights  of  land  intervening  between  the  ends  of  the  waterways. 
The  latter  group  takes  the  heavy  freight  offered  downward  only. 
These  groupings  also  correspond  to  the  availability  of  the  canals 
as  trade  routes,  in  the  past  and  in  the  future.  From  this  point  of 
view  the  situation  of  the  iMorris  Canal  is  the  least  favorable.  The 
physical  difficulties  to  be  overcome  place  it  at  a  permanent  disad- 
vantage in  comparison  with  the  other  routes,  notwithstanding  the 
location  on  the  line  from  the  coal  fields  to  New  York.  In  the  present 
state  of  mechanical  development  the  extended  use  of  the  inclined 
plane,  even  if  the  water  supply  could  be  increased  sufficiently  to 
support  an  enlarged  canal,  seems  to  be  out  of  the  question. 

The  Delaware  and  Hudson,  except  that  inclined  planes 
are  not  necessary,  labors  under  similar  disadvantages,  but  its 
ability  to  handle  a  large  traffic  is  proved  by  its  history.  Its 
operation  has  been  found  unprofitable  under  present  conditions, 
however,  and  the  railroad  interests  in  control  do  not  look  upon  its 
rehabilitation  as  a  practical  matter.  This  is  also  the  case  wnth  the 
Schuylkill  route,  though  in  this  case  there  is  no  summit  level  to 
be  overcome. 

The  Lehigh  and  Delaware  Division  Canals,  now  under  one 
ownership,  are  in  a  different  class.  The  physical  conditions  are 
more  favorable  and  it  is  also  to  be  noted  that  unlike  the  other  two 
they  are  held  by  a  company  in  which  the  development  of  the  canals 
would  not  merely  mean  a  supplemental  outlet  to  a  market  already 
reached  by  its  railroad  holdings,  but  an  independent  access  to  mar- 
kets now  reached  through  agencies  furnished  by  other  transpor- 
tation companies.  These  canals  also  have  proved  in  the  past  their 
ability  to  handle  traffic. 

The  Present  Problem  of  Coal  Canal  Transportation. 
The  problem  of  successful  maintenance  of  a  coal-carrying 
canal  is  the  same  as  for  other  transportation  routes — the  securing 
of  tonnage.  This  is  difficult  at  present  because  of  the  high  local 
rates  charged  on  the  railways  which  might  prove  feeders  to  the 
waterways.  As  a  result  the  canals  find  it  difficult  to  make  a  com- 
petitive rate  such  that  they  can  compete  with  rail  carriage  on  the 
through  trade.     The  high  local  rates  on  coal  shipped  to  the  canals 


The  Anthracite  Tide-Water  Canals  113! 

form  so  large  a  part  of  the  cost  of  carriage  to  market  that 
the  canals  must  work  at  a  peculiar  disadvantage,  unless  they  can 
supply  the  tonnage  directly  from  their  own  coal  mines  or  over 
railroads  under  their  control.  When  the  competing  railroad  com- 
panies are  also  coal  mine  owners,  it  is  evidently  against  their  inter- 
ests to  establish  local  rates  which  would  divert  traffic  from  their 
own  to  the  rival  transportation  interests  of  the  canals. 

Another  disadvantage  of  canals  is  the  necessity  of  transship- 
ment, especially  when  the  cargoes  on  the  canals  are  of  small  size. 
Where  the  coal  must  be  loaded  from  a  railroad  to  a  canal  boat,  and 
later  from  a  canal  boat  again  to  a  railroad  car,  the  incident  expense 
greatly  cuts  into  the  ability  of  the  canal  to  compete.  Where  the 
second  transshipment  can  take  place  into  large  barges,  the  disad- 
vantage is  not  so  great,  especially  as  the  canal  boat  will  have  the 
ability  to  come  directly  along  side,  and  wharfage  charges  can  be 
avoided. 

The  inability  to  market  products  during  the  winter  is  a  perma- 
nent limitation  on  the  use  of  canals.  Where  the  business  must  for 
months  be  transferred  to  the  railroads  there  can  naturally  not 
be  the  continuity  of  business  relations  that  is  so  much  to  be  desired. 

The  technical  problem  of  reducing  the  fixed  charges  of  canal 
maintenance  and  the  delays  of  lockage  is  also  important  in  deter- 
mining whether  the  canals  can  again  be  made  available.  The  fixed 
charges  of  attendance  of  lockmen  and  the  repairs  of  locks  form  the 
largest  single  item  of  expense  on  an  average  canal  of  100  tons 
to  150  tons  capacity.  This  renders  the  decrease  of  the  number 
of  locks  an  important  factor  in  cutting  down  cost  of  operation. 
Modern  engineering  is  making  possible  the  use  of  locks  of  much 
greater  height  than  those  now  in  place  on  canals  of  medium  size, 
and  if  such  could  be  introduced  with  profit,  adopting  a  sixteen-  or 
twenty-foot  lift  where  now  eight-  or  ten-foot  locks  are  in  use,  an 
important  saving  could  be  made. 

Locks  of  higher  lift  would  also  mean  a  great  economy  in  time, 
for  it  takes  only  a  small  increase  of  time  to  fill  or  empty  a  lock 
of  twice  the  usual  present  height.  The  great  waste  of  time  in 
lockage  at  present  is  consumed  in  getting  the  boat  into  the  lock,  not 
in  raising  or  lowering  the  boat.  The  loss  occasioned  in  checking  a 
boat  which  is  going  into  the  lock  too  rapidly,  or  in  starting  one 
lacking  momentum,  and  pulling  it  into  the  lock  by  hand  or  by 


114  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

winches  consumes  many  limes  the  time  necessary  to  do  the  actual 
work  of  lockage.  Where  short  lift  locks  are  used  the  time  spent 
in  lockage  is  often  as  great  as  the  entire  time  spent  in  actually 
traversing  the  prism.  Higher  locks  would  therefore  mean  a  de- 
crease in  the  personnel  and  equipment  necessary  to  operate  the 
canal  as  well  as  increased  earnings  on  the  capital  invested  in  boats, 
due  to  increased  ability  of  each  boat  to  take  produce  to  market. 

The  most  decided  advantage  of  a  canal  is  in  the  low  cost  of 
moving  freight.  Where  speed  is  not  an  essential,  as  in  the  heavy 
and  rough  products,  this  may  prove  quite  sufficient  of  itself  to 
overcome  disadvantages  which  would  otherwise  make  operation 
unprofitable.  The  actual  cost  of  moving  freight— exclusive  of 
lockage — on  a  lOO-ton  barge  canal  is  somewhat  less  than  one-half 
cent  per  ton  per  mile.  If  the  barge  is  increased  in  size,  the  cost 
per  ton  mile  is  more  than  proportionately  less. 

Where  the  fixed  charges  of  a  canal  are  low,  this  advantage 
in  towing  cost  becomes  a  very  important  feature.  A  canal  whose 
fixed  charges  and  towing  expenses  with  barges  of  lOO-tons  capacity, 
on  a  freight  total  of  250,000  tons,  give  a  ton  mile  cost  of  one  and 
®ne-half  cents,  would  give  a  ton-mile  cost  of  one  cent  per  ton-mile 
on  500,000  tons  and  three-quarters  of  a  cent  per  ton-mile  on 
1,000.000  tons.  Increase  in  the  size  of  the  barges,  decrease  in  the 
number  of  locks,  or  in  the  cost  of  towage,  would,  of  course,  further 
de  "ease  ton-mile  cost.  In  the  latter  item  experience  with  electric 
traction  in  Europe  shows  that  there  important  savings  can  be  made 
over  animal  power.  Towing  from  the  bank  of  canals  of  the  char- 
acter under  discussion  has  proven  less  wasteful  of  power  than  tow- 
ing by  tugs.  Further,  the  distinct  advantage  is  gained  that  it  is 
accompanied  by  less  washing  of  the  banks.  These  reasons  also 
set  the  profitable  limit  of  speed  even  when  mechanical  traction  is 
introduced  at  four  miles  an  hour. 

Can  Coal  he  ProHtahly  Carried  by  the  Canals  under  Present 
Economic  Conditions? 

The  Morris  Canal  seems  to  be  handicapped  to  such  a  degree 
that  its  abandonment  may  be  accepted  as  final.  Under  present 
conditions  the  operation  of  the  Delaware-?Iudson  route,  once  an 
important  avenue  of  trade,  has  been  found  unprofitable,  as  already 
indicated,  and  there  is  no  prospect  of  its  further  use  in  the  near 
future.     The  same  is  true  of  the  Schuylkill  Canal. 


The  Anthracite  Tide-Water  Canals  II5 

Of  the  distinctively  coal  canals  discussed,  the  only  one  in  opera- 
tion throughout  its  whole  length  is  that  furnishing  an  outlet  by  the 
Lehigh-Delaware  route.  This  canal  still  carries  a  coal  traffic  of 
over  200,000  tons.  During  the  past  summer  experiments  have  been 
introduced  on  the  upper  section  with  the  object  of  finding  whether 
mechanical  traction  can  be  introduced  at  a  profit.  Two  experi- 
mental sections  of  two  miles  each  have  been  installed.  One  section 
is  operated  by  an  electric  device  of  the  American  Adhesion  Traction 
Company;  the  other  by  a  modification  of  the  Lehigh  Company's 
electric  mine  locomotive.  All  the  traffic  on  both  of  these  sections 
is  handled  exclusively  by  these  machines,  which  run  along  the  line 
of  the  old  towpaths.  They  handle  the  traffic  fairly  well,  and  the 
expense  of  operation  is  less  than  that  of  animal  power.  Whether 
the  fixed  charges  on  the  investment  will  overbalance  this  advantage 
cannot  be  stated  as  yet  because  of  the  short  time  in  which  the  ex- 
periment has  been  in  operation.  Whether  the  canal  can  again 
prove  itself  able  to  furnish  a  profitable  outlet  for  the  coal  trade 
depends  upon  the  success  of  experiments  of  this  nature  and  modifi- 
cations to  cut  down  the  fixed  charges,  such  as  are  mentioned  above. 

The  Relation  of  the  Canal  to  the  Coastzwe  Inland  Waterways 

If  the  canal  can  again  prove  itself  able  to  deliver  coal  at  the 
Bristol  wharves  on  terms  equal  to  the  rates  offered  by  the  railroads, 
it  would  seem  to  have  an  assured  business,  even  under  present 
conditions,  for  the  following  reasons : 

(i)  To  the  Philadelphia  market — the  one  to  which  the  canal 
first  sent  its  traffic — the  canal  has  immediate  access.  The  size 
of  the  city  makes  the  market  to  be  supplied  one  capable  of  large  de- 
velopment. 

(2)  If  the  coal  can  be  brought  economically  to  Philadelphia, 
even  under  present  conditions  an  important  trade  southbound  can 
be  developed.  This  would  necessitate  transshipment  to  larger 
coal  barges,  but  that  charge  could  be  borne  without  destroying 
profits.  That  this  is  the  case  is  proven  by  the  fact  that  the  Reading 
Railroad  finds  it  profitable  to  transship  coal  at  Port  Richmond 
from  its  cars  to  coal  barges  which  it  sends  through  the  Chesa- 
peake and  Delaware  Canal  to  the  Baltimore,  Washington  and  Nor- 
folk markets.  A  profitable  business  has  thus  been  built  up  in 
spite  of  the  canal  tolls  involved  on  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware 


ii6  The  A)i}ials  of  the  American  Academy 

Canal.     If  the  Lehigh  Canal  could  profitably  bring  coal  to  Bristol, 
this  trade  would  be  open  to  it  also. 

The  possibilities  of  developing  markets  other  than  Philadel- 
phia would  be  greatly  increased  should  the  present  movement  to 
improve  the  coastwise  waterways  be  attended  with  success.  The 
trade  to  the  south  would  be  on  a  better  footing  because  of  the  in- 
creased capacity  of  the  boats  into  which  the  transshipment  could 
be  made,  and  because  of  the  abolition  of  canal  tolls. 

More  important  even  than  this  would  be  the  outlet  again 
opened  to  the  canal,  through  the  Delaware  and  Raritan,  to  the 
New  York  market.  This  would  be  a  revival  of  a  trade  which  for 
years  formed  an  important  factor  in  the  total  business  of  the 
Lehigh  and  Delaware  canals.  In  1867,  472,751  tons  of  coal  from 
the  Lehigh  region  passed  into  the  navigable  feeder  of  the  Delaware 
and  Raritan.  By  the  same  route  were  sent,  even  as  late  as  1884,  238,- 
756  tons.  This  trade  represented  in  each  of  these  years  nearly  twice 
the  amount  that  reached  Bristol  for  the  Philadelphia  trade. 

At  present  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  interests  controlling 
the  Delaware  and  Raritan  route  maintain  the  charges  at  such  a 
figure  that  no  competition  can  be  given  to  the  railroads  by  the 
canal  company  on  through  coal  trade  to  New  York.  Were  the 
tolls  abolished  and  the  chanel  widened  this  market,  like  that  to  the 
south,  would  be  open  to  exploitation  by  those  delivering  coal  by 
water. 

The  answer  to  the  question  of  the  future  availability  of  the 
coal  canals  is  therefore  a  double  one.  In  the  case  of  the  Morris 
Canal  its  future  availability  seems  highly  improbable.  In  the  case 
of  two,  and  perhaps  the  four  others,  the  problem  is  a  technical  one — 
whether  the  improvements  of  modern  engineering  can  make  their 
operation  so  economical  as  to  make  their  use  as  a  supplement  to  the 
railroads  in  carrying  low-class  freight  a  profitable  one.  Physical 
ability  to  handle  traffic  is  proved  by  their  history.  Availability  of 
tonnage,  through  the  granting  of  competitive  rates  on  the  feeding 
lines,  and  economy  of  operation,  are  problems  to  be  determined 
bv  the  community  of  railroad  and  canal  interests  and  by  improvements 
in  engineering.  A  revival  in  the  near  future  seems  possible  on 
but  two  of  the  waterways — the  ones  carrying  coal  on  the  Lehigh- 
Delaware  route. 


THE  NEW  YORK  CANALS^ 


By  Professor  John  A.  Fairlie, 
University  of  Michigan,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 


In  the   great  revival   of  interest   in   internal   waterways,   it  is 
significant,   though    not    surprising,    that   the    first   work   of    great 
importance  has  been  undertaken  by  the  same  state  that  inaugurated 
the  internal  improvements  of  the  early  nineteenth  century  by  the 
construction  of  the  first  Erie  Canal.     Ninety  years  ago  work  had 
been    commenced    on    what    then    seemed    the    stupendous    project 
of  De  Witt  Clinton,  the  result  of  which  was  to  establish  the  com- 
mercial supremacy  of  New  York  City  and  to  make  the  State  of 
New  York  the  most  populous  and  richest  state  in  the  Union.     Until 
forty  years  ago,  the  Erie  Canal  remained  the  all-important  trans- 
portation route  between  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Atlantic.     Since 
then,   the   canal   traffic   has   declined    in    amount,   and    its    relative 
importance  has   dwindled   to   a   small   fraction   of   its   former   sig- 
nificance.    But  there  are  reasons  for  believing  that  a  considerable 
part  of  this  decline  has  been   due  to   the   failure  to   improve  the 
canals    to   meet   the   needs   of   modern    conditions,    and    the    State 
of  New  York  has  now  undertaken  the  construction  of  a  new  barge 
canal    system,    which    it   is    expected   will   meet   the   conditions   of 
to-day  and  bring  about  a  notable  revival  of  water  transportation 
across  its  territory. 

An  account  of  the  recent  history  of  the  New  York  canals 
should  be  of  service  in  any  discussion  of  American  waterways. 
And  it  is  proposed  in  this  paper  to  examine  the  later  period  of 
canal  traffic,  the  causes  of  its  decline,  the  plans  for  the  new  water 
routes,  the  present  status  of  the  construction  work,  and  the  prob- 
able effect  on  transportation,  commerce  and  industry. 

From  the  time  of  their  construction  until  after  the  last  third 
of  the  nineteenth  century  had  begun,  the  New  York  canals  held 
undisputed  their  position  as  the  main  transportation  route  from  the 
lakes  to  the  seaboard.     As  late  as  1862  the  ton-mileage  of  canal 

iCf.  for  fuller  details  nrtirles  in  the  Quarterly  .Tournal  of  Economics  XIV,  212 
(February,  1900),  and  XVIII.  '2W  (Fohruary.  1904 K 

(ii7) 


ii8  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

traffic  was  more  than  double  the  combined  ton-mileage  of  the 
New  York  Central  and  the  Erie  railroads.  And  in  1866  the  canal 
traffic  comprised  60  per  cent  of  the  freight  movement  across  New 
York  State. 

It  is  in  the  development  of  internal  commerce  since  the  Civil  War 
that  the  decline  of  the  canals  is  to  be  traced.  As  early  as  1863  we 
may  notice  a  decline  in  the  flour  traffic  on  the  canals ;  but  the 
other  important  items  showed  no  falling  off  at  that  time,  and, 
indeed,  showed  an  upward  movement  in  the  years  of  expanding 
business  from  1866  to  1873.  But  the  railroads  were  now  secur- 
ing a  share  of  the  bulk  commodities ;  and  their  freight  traffic  as  a 
whole  was  growing  at  a  much  more  rapid  rate  than  the  railroads. 

In  the  years  of  depression  following  1873,  canal  traffic  began 
to  show  a  positive  reduction  in  volume.  In  1876,  but  4,172,129 
tons  were  moved  on  all  the  canals,  less  than  two-thirds  of  the  traffic 
for  1872.  The  railroads,  however,  continued  to  develop  their 
traffic,  and  in  1876  carried  a  total  tonnage  of  14,983,600  tons,  more 
than  three  times  the  aggregate  canal  tonnage. 

For  the  next  few  years  canal  traffic  showed  signs  of  revival, 
reaching  a  total  of  6,437,656  tons  in  1880.  As  some  of  the  branch 
canals  had  now  been  discontinued,  the  tonnage  for  1880  was,  in 
fact,  larger  than  the  aggregate  for  the  same  canals  in  any  former 
year.  But  this  movement  was  only  temporary,  and  by  1882  the 
total  canal  traffic  was  about  16  per  cent  below  the  maximum 
figure  for  1872 ;  while  during  the  same  decade  railroad  traffic  had 
doubled,  and  the  railroad  proportion  of  grain  receipts  at  New  York 
had  increased  to  63  per  cent. 

In  1882  canal  tolls  were  abolished,  and  the  canals  became  free 
waterways,  maintained  by  the  state  from  general  taxation.  But 
this  change  did  not  produce  any  marked  effects  on  the  traffic,  which 
remained  at  about  the  figures  for  1882  until  the  end  of  the  decade, 
while  railroad  traffic  continued  to  increase.  From  1890  to  1895 
the  canal  traffic  again  declined  to  a  notable  degree,  from  5.370,000 
tons  to  3.500,000  tons.  Since  then  the  tonnage  has  been  approx- 
imately stationary,  reaching  a  minimum  of  3,138,000  tons  in  1904, 
but  rising  again  to  3,540,000  tons  in  1906.  Meanwhile,  however, 
the  aggregate  freight  tonnage  on  the  New  York  railroads  has 
continued  to  increase,  until  it  has  reached  the  enormous  volume 
of  over  100,000,000  tons,  compared  with  which  the  canal  traffic 
is  insignificant. 


The  Nciv   York  Canals  119 

Viewing  the  whole  period  from  1868  to  1906,  the  total  canal 
traffic  has  declined  from  6,442,000  tons  to  3.540,ooo  tons.  Of  the 
several  canals,  the  decrease  in  traffic  has  been  most  marked  on  the 
branch  canals,  discontinued  in  1877,  and  on  the  Oswego  Canal. 
The  Champlain  Canal  has  maintained  its  traffic  to  a  larger  degree 
than  the  others,  having  a  tonnage  of  about  800,000  tons  a  year, 
compared  with  1,120,000  tons  in  1868.  The  Erie  Canal  has  now 
approximately  2,000,000  tons  a  year,  as  against  3.346,000  tons  in 

1868. 

When  the  canal  traffic  is  compared  with  the  railroad  traffic, 
the  decline  of  the  former  in  comparative  importance  is  unmistak- 
able. While  as  late  as  1869  the  canal  traffic,  measured  in  ton-miles, 
was  equal  to  the  aggregate  railroad  traffic  across  the  State  of 
New  York,  at  present  the  canal  traffic  is  less  than  four  per  cent  of 
the  railroad  traffic,  and  is  less  than  one-tenth  of  the  freight  tonnage 
on  either  the  New  York  Central  or  the  Erie  railroad. 

The   factors   which  have  brought  about  this   decline   in  canal 
transportation  are,  as  usual   in  economic  development,  many  and 
complex;   and  the  different   factors  have  been   of  widely  varying 
importance.     In  respect  to  some  important  items  of  traffic— lumber 
and  forest  products,  iron  ore  and  coal— the  change  has  been  due 
largely   to    changes    in    the    sources    of    supply,— the    geographical 
relations  of  the  raw  materials  and  the  markets  being  better  suited 
to  other  lines  of  transportation  than  across  the  State  of  New  York. 
With    regard   to    other   commodities— live-stock,    fresh   meats   and 
highly  manufactured  goods— the  rapidity  of  railroad,  as  compared 
wfth  canal  transportation,  gives  the   former  an  unmistakable   ad- 
vantage.    So   far   as  these   factors   account   for  the   changed   con- 
ditions, they  indicate  a  permanent  advantage  of  the  railroad  over 
the  water   routes.     But  they  do  not  give  a  complete   explanation 
of  the  expansion  of  railroad  traffic  or  the  decline  in  canal  traffic. 
The    decline    in    grain    traffic    on    the    canals,    both    in    actual 
amount,  and  still  more  in  the  percentage  of  receipts  at  New  York, 
cannot   be    explained   by    geographical    changes    in    the    source    of 
production   nor  the   importance   of   rapid   transportation.     The   in- 
crease   in    receipts    at    Buffalo    and    New   York— although    less    in 
recent  years— shows  that  the  route  across  the  State  of  New  York 
is  still  the  most  important  for  this  traffic  ;  and  the  decline  of  canal 
traffic  here  is  due  directly  to  the  competition  of  railroads  travers- 


120  The  Amials  of  the  American  Academy 

ing  the  same  section  as  the  canals.  This  competition  has  been 
possible  because  of  the  reduction  of  rail  rates  until  they  at  times 
have  been  almost  as  low  as  those  on  the  canals ;  and  it  has  been 
urged  that  this  situation  demonstrates  that  even  for  bulky  com- 
modities, w^here  there  is  no  need  for  special  haste,  the  railroads 
can  permanently  offer  practically  as  low  rates  and  better  service 
than  the  canals,  and  thus  offer  superior  accommodations  for  all 
classes  of  traffic. 

Further  investigation,  however,  shows  that  while,  during  the 
past  forty  years,  the  railroads  have  made  constant  and  large  im- 
provements, both  in  their  physical  condition  and  in  their  methods 
of  administration,  the  canals  have  in  both  respects  remained  prac- 
tically at  a  standstill.  The  road  beds  of  the  railroads  have  been 
completely  rebuilt,  permitting  the  use  of  larger  cars  and  more 
powerful  locomotives,  increasing  manifold  the  trainload  units  and 
reducing  to  a  corresponding  degree  the  expenses  for  each  ton 
carried.  At  the  same  time  the  railroad  lines  have  been  consoli- 
dated under  the  control  of  large  corporations,  which  reduce  the 
expenses  of  general  management  and  permit  more  economical 
methods  of  business  management  on  a  large  scale. 

On  the  other  hand,  no  permanent  improvements  of  any  im- 
portance have  been  completed  on  the  canals  for  more  than  forty 
years ;  while  in  many  respects  they  are  practically  the  same  to-day 
as  when  first  constructed.  The  same  style  of  boats  and  the  same 
system  of  animal  towage  have  been  in  use  since  the  first  canal  was 
constructed ;  and  the  size  of  the  locks  and  canal  prism,  which  limit 
the  size  of  the  boats,  has  remained  unchanged  since  the  comple- 
tion of  the  former  enlargement  in  1862.  And  the  traffic  on  the 
canals  continues  to  be  handled  by  single  boatmen  or  small  com- 
panies, owning  at  best  but  a  few  boats,  with  too  little  capital  to 
make  use  of  labor-saving  devices,  or  to  furnish  terminal  facilities, 
with  no  organized  methods  of  securing  business,  and  without 
sufficient  financial  standing  to  encourage  the  patronage  of  large 
shippers. 

From  these  considerations  it  seems  clear  that  the  decline 
of  canal  traffic  has  been  largely  aided  by  the  failure  to  improve 
the  canals  to  keep  pace  with  the  railroads.  And  it  is  at  least  worth 
while  to  examine  the  possibilities  of  a  revival  of  water  traffic, 
if  the  physical  condition  and  business  methods  of  the  canals  were 
brought  to  a  modern  basis. 


The  Nczu   York  Canals  121 

In  1899,  Governor  Roosevelt,  of  New  York,  appointed  a 
committee  of  prominent  business  men  and  practical  engineers 
to  undertake  such  an  investigation,  and  to  formulate  definitely 
the  future  canal  policy  of  the  state.  And  it  is  the  recommendations 
of  this  committee,  presented  to  the  state  legislature  in  1900,  which 
form  the  basis  of  the  new  barge  canal  project  that  is  now  under 
construction.  The  report  of  the  committee  emphatically  opposed 
the  abandonment  of  the  canals,  and  doubted  the  expediency  of  a 
ship  canal,  which  in  any  case  would  be  a  work  for  the  national 
government.  After  the  study  of  various  projects  the  committee 
urged  the  construction  of  what  would  be  practically  a  new  series 
of  canals  and  waterways,  with  important  changes  from  the  old 
routes,  which  should  be  navigable  by  steam-towed  barges  drawing 
ten  feet  of  water  and  having  a  capacity  of  at  least  a  thousand  tons, 
or  four  times  that  of  the  largest  boats  that  could  use  the  existing 
canals.     Preliminary  estimates  of  the  cost  were  also  presented. 

This  report  was  followed  by  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  engi- 
neering features  of  the  project  and  the  preparation  of  more  detailed 
estimates  by  the  state  engineer  and  surveyor,  which  were  submitted  to 
the  legislature  in  1901,  showing  a  total  estimated  cost  of  $101,000,000. 
Had  Mr.  Roosevelt  continued  as  governor,  energetic  efforts  would 
probably  have  been  made  to  secure  further  action  at  that  time. 
But  his  successor,  Governor  Odell,  was  not  prepared  to  urge  the 
matter ;  and  not  until  April,  1903,  was  a  statute  passed,  providing 
for  an  issue  of  bonds  to  the  amount  of  $101,000,000  for  the  new 
canal  plans,  if  approved  (as  required  by  the  state  constitution)  by 
popular  vote.  After  an  active  campaign  the  election  in  November 
was  in  favor  of  the  work  by  the  decisive  vote  of  673,010  to 
427,698.  . 

The  scheme  thus  authorized  has  usually  been  called  one  for 
canal  enlargement  or  canal  improvement;  but  these  terms  fail  to 
indicate  fully  the  character  of  the  work.  More  than  one-half  of 
the  new  water  routes  will  be  through  river  channels  and  lakes, 
and  the  canal  work  involves  the  construction  of  entirely  new  chan- 
nels and  locks,  in  many  places  along  different  routes  from  the 
present  canals.  On  the  principal  route,  or  the  Erie  Canal,  from 
Lake  Erie  to  the  Hudso^  River,  the  new  channel  will  follow  the 
line  of  the  old  canal,  in  the  main,  from  the  Niagara  River,  at  Tona- 
wanda,  to  the  neighborhood  of  Lyons.     Thence   it  takes   a   new 


122 


The  Annals  of  the  /hncriean  Academy 


route  to  the  south  of  the  Montezuma  marshes,  and  in  the  Seneca 
and  Oneida  rivers  and  across  Oneida  Lake.  Thence  it  crosses  to 
the  Mohawk  River  west  of  Rome,  and  then  utiUzes  the  bed  of 
that  river  for  most  of  the  distance  to  Waterford  on  the  Hudson. 
The  new  route  removes  the  canal  from  the  business  districts 
of  Rochester  and  Syracuse,  but  furnishes  each  of  these  cities 
with  larger  and  better  facihties  for  water  traffic  in  the  Genesee 
River  and  Lake  Onondaga.  The  most  important  changes  of  level 
are  at  Lockport  and  Waterford.  At  the  former  a  flight  of  two 
locks  will  replace  the  five  now  used;  and  at  the  latter,  five  locks, 
with  a  fall  of  thirty-four  feet  each,  will  take  the  place  of  the 
sixteen  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cohoes  on  the  old  canal. 

In  addition  to  this  main  line,  the  Oswego  River  will  be 
canalized  from  its  junction  with  the  Erie  canal  route  to  Lake 
Ontario,  furnishing  a  waterway  from  that  lake  to  the  Hudson  with 
only  thirty-five  miles  of  canal.  The  Hudson  River  will  also 
be  made  navigable  from  Troy  to  Fort  Edward;  and  from  there  a 
new  channel  will  follow  the  line  of  the  Champlain  Canal  to  the 
lake  of  that  name.^ 

On  all  of  these  routes  a  channel  with  a  mimimum  depth  of 
twelve  feet  is  to  be  constructed.  On  river  sections  the  minimum 
bottom  width  will  be  200  feet;  on  canal  sections  75  feet.  The 
locks,  which  are  the  principal  factors  in  limiting  the  size  of  the 
vessels  will  be  328  feet  in  length  and  (by  the  latest  plans)  45  feet 
in  width.  These  will  permit  the  passage  at  one  time  of  two  boats, 
each  150  feet  long,  42  feet  wide  and  drawing  10  feet  of  w^ater, 
with  a  capacity  of  1.500  tons;  and  such  barges  will  be  the  most 
economical  unit  for  transportation  on  the  new  routes.  The  size 
of  the  barges  and  the  location  of  so  much  of  the  new  routes  in 
open  water  courses  involves  the  disappearance  of  the  primitive 
system  of  horse  towage,  and  will  make  necessary  the  use  of  steam 
or  other  mechanical  motive  power.  It  is  expected  that  vessels 
will  usually  go  in  fleets  of  four,  one  steamer  towing  three  barges. 

'Statistics  of  New  Canal  Routes. 

River  and  Lake.     Canal  and  Locks.  Total. 

ArUes.                      Miles.  Milr.t. 

Erie    Canal 1T4.83                       le-.S.-?  34.^fi6 

Oswego  Canal    18-04                           4.80  22.84 

Champlain  Canal    38.18                       ^8.16  ^^'^^ 

Total 231.05  200.79  432.84 


The  Nov  York  Canals  123 

And  under  these  conditions  it  is  estimated  that  the  trip  from 
Buffalo  to  New  York  can  be  made  in  five  days,  in  place  of  ten  days 
as  at  present. 

The  estimates  previously  made  covered  in  detail  everything 
necessary  for  the  construction  operations,  including  not  only  ex- 
cavation, locks  and  dams,  but  also  bridges,  harbors  at  Rochester 
and  Syracuse,  water  supply,  and  navigation  buoys  and  lights.  The 
statute  of  1903  authorized  the  letting  of  contracts,  and  directed  the 
comptroller  to  issue  bonds  as  needed  for  making  payments.  Care- 
ful provisions  were  made  to  secure  public  competitive  bidding, 
and  otherwise  to  prevent  any  mismanagement  in  connection  with 
contracts.  The  governor  was  authorized  to  appoint  a  board  of 
five  expert  civil  engineers  to  advise  the  state  officers  during  the 
progress  of  the  work. 

Following  the  popular  vote,  work  was  begun  on  the  detailed 
specifications  for  contracts.  Then  bids  were  called  for,  and  the 
first  six  contracts  were  made  in  April,  1905.  Since  then  this  work 
has  been  steadily  continued.  In  December,  1907,  contracts  had 
been  let  covering  130  miles  of  the  new  routes,  including  twenty- 
eight  locks  and  fifteen  dams  (out  of  a  total  of  sixty-eight  locks 
and  thirty-three  dams  to  be  constructed),  and  aggregating  ^23,- 
000,000.  These  contracts  have  been  for  the  most  part  at  lower 
prices  than  the  estimates  of  1900 ;  and  the  prospects  are  thus  good 
for  completing  the  work  within  the  total  estimated  cost.  The 
largest  stretches  of  the  new  routes  contracted  for  are  one  on  the  Cham- 
plain  Canal  from  Northumberland  to  Fort  Edward,  and  on  the 
main  route  along  the  Seneca  and  Oneida  rivers.  But  plans  and 
detailed  specifications  are  practically  completed  for  contracts  to 
cover  most  of  the  remaining  sections. 

Construction  work  on  the  contracts  already  let  is  well  under 
way,  and  several  locks,  including  one  of  the  largest  locks  near 
Waterford,  are  approaching  completion.  But  scarcity  of  labor 
has  delayed  operations;  and  it  will  probably  be  at  least  six  or 
eight  years  before  the  completion  of  the  whole  plan  can  be  expected. 

As  to  the  probable  results  of  this  new  canal  system,  only 
general  estimates  can  of  course  be  made.  It  has  been  calculated, 
however,  that  the  cost  of  transportation  in  barges  built  for  the 
new  route  will  be  less  than  twenty-five  cents  per  ton,  or  below  half 
a  mill  per  ton  mile,  far  below  the  cheapest  railroad  rates.     The 


124  The  Annals  of  the  A)iierican  Academy 

capacity  of  the  canal  will  be  about  30,000,000  tons  a  year;  and  on 
that  tonnage  the  saving  in  cost  of  transportation  as  compared  with 
the  present  canal  would  be  $18,000,000  a  year.  Even  with  less  than 
half  the  maximum  tonnage,  the  direct  saving  will  make  possible 
a  reduction  in  charges  for  transportation  that  will  much  more  than 
offset  the  cost  of  the  new  undertaking. 

But  the  direct  reduction  in  the  cost  of  transportation  will 
be  but  a  small  part  of  the  advantages  from  the  new  canals.  And 
the  indirect  advantages,  which  cannot  be  even  vaguely  measured, 
will  form  by  far  the  greatest  economic  gain,  both  to  the  State  of 
New  York  and  the  country  at  large.  Some  of  the  tendencies  that 
will  be  promoted  may  be  at  least  indicated  in  a  general  way. 

It  is  almost  self-evident  that  the  lower  rates  of  freight  by 
the  new  routes  will  prevent  further  diversion  of  the  export  trade 
in  breadstuffs  from  New  York,  and  will  probably  regain  much  of 
the  trade  already  diverted  to  other  ports,  and  re-establish  the  un- 
disputed preeminence  of  New  York  in  the  export  trade. 

Of  even  greater  importance  are  the  possibilities  in  connection 
with  the  iron  and  steel  industry.  The  raw  materials  can  be  laid 
down  at  Buffalo  as  cheaply  as  at  Pittsburg,— the  higher  price  for 
coal  and  coke  at  Buffalo  being  offset  by  the  saving  of  rail  haul 
of  ore  from  Lake  Erie  points  to  Pittsburg.  With  an  adequate 
w^aterway  to  the  seaboard,  iron  and  steel  from  Buffalo  furnaces 
can  be  laid  down  for  one-fourth  of  the  present  cost  of  carriage  from 
the  furnaces  to  the  Atlantic.  Opportunities  wdll  thus  be  offered 
for  promoting  the  industrial  development  of  western  New  York, 
for  making  New  York  harbor  the  distributing  center  for  iron  and 
steel  products  to  the  markets  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  in  New 
England  and  in  foreign  countries,  and  for  developing  on  the  Hud- 
son River  a  large  ship-building  industry.  It  is  not  too  much 
to  say  that  the  possibilities  in  these  directions  justify  the  compre- 
hensive plans  for  the  new  canals  fully  as  much  as  the  prospect  of 
transporting  grain  justified  the  construction  of  the  first  Erie  Canal. 

Nor  is  it  impossible  that,  with  the  low  rates  of  freight  by  the 
new  canals,  it  will  be  found  cheaper  to  ship  w^est-bound  coal  by 
'the  indirect  canal  route  than  by  the  more  direct  railroad  routes; 
and  a  large  east-bound  trade  in  bituminous  coal  to  the  manufactur- 
ing districts  of  New  England  may  also  be  developed.  Still  more. 
it  is  at  least  probable  that  with  the  water  routes  now  under  con- 


The  Neiv  York  Canals  125 

struction,  regular  lines  of  steamers  can  be  operated  at  as  great 
a  rate  of  speed  as  freight  trains,  and  secure  no  inconsiderable 
amount  of  package  freight  business. 

And  to  conclude,  the  large  barges  in  the  new  canal  routes 
will  easily  be  able  to  traverse  Long  Island  Sound  to  New  England 
ports,  and  to  make  journeys  to  the  Delaware  and  Chesapeake  Bay, — 
a  prospect  which  opens  up  almost  unlimited  possibilities  for  through 
water  transportation  from  the  lakes  to  these  distant  regions. 


TRANSPORTATION  ON  THE  GREAT  LAKES 


By  Walter  Thayer, 

Eastern   Manager   Erie   and  Western  Transportation   Company, 

Philadelphia. 


The  prominence  of  the  Panama  Canal  in  the  affairs  of  the 
nation  has  naturally  resulted  in  greater  interest  in  transportation 
by  inland  waterways.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  wider 
interest  now  being  taken  in  our  greatest  natural  waterway,  the 
Northern  Lakes,  and  in  the  conditions  under  which  freight  is 
handled  on  them. 

Although  the  Great  Lakes  were  originally  individually  navi- 
gable for  boats  of  considerable  size,  the  rapids  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie, 
and  the  narrow  and  shallow  stretches  of  water  connecting  Lake 
Erie  with  Lake  Huron,  and  Lake  Huron  with  Lake  Superior, 
through  which  the  greatest  volume  of  tonnage  must  pass,  presented 
many  obstacles  to  the  passage  of  vessels.  An  increasing  traffic 
transported,  and  a  consequent  decreasing  cost  of  transportation 
have  accompanied  the  clearing  of  these  impediments  to  navigation. 
The  principal  natural  obstacles  have  been,  and  still  are,  the  shallow 
water  over  the  Lime  Kiln  Crossing,  just  south  of  Detroit,  over  the 
St.  Clair  flats  not  far  above  the  same  place,  at  the  Straits  of  Mack- 
inac, and,  most  important  of  all,  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Rapids  at  the 
entrance  to  Lake  Superior.  The  deepening  by  the  United  States 
Government  of  the  first  three  stretches,  and  the  building  by  the 
United  States  and  Canada  of  the  largest  locks  in  the  world  at 
Sault  Ste.  Marie,  where  there  is  a  total  fall  of  about  eighteen  feet 
in  three-quarters  of  a  mile,  now  permit  the  passage  of  practically 
all  the  immense  tonnage  to  and  from  Lake  Superior.  These  im- 
provements have  perhaps  yielded  greater  returns  to  this  country 
than  many  times  the  same  amount  invested  in  any  other  character 
of  public  improvements. 

The  aim  of  this  paper  is  to  describe  in  a  general  way  the  origin, 
character  and  method  of  handling  the  tonnage  of  the  Great  Lakes. 


(126) 


Traiisporiation  on  the  Great  Lakes  127 

Traffic  and  Vessel  Tonnage  on  the  Great  Lakes 

Contrary  to  the  general  understanding  this  traffic  consists 
of  relatively  few  commodities,  most  of  which  are  products  of 
the  mines,  the  forests  and  the  grain  fields,  surrounding  or  lying 
beyond  the  Great  Lakes.  Iron  ore  and  coal  constitute  the  bulk 
of  the  tonnage. 

The  tonnage  of  ships  and  traffic  passing  the  locks  at  Sault 
Ste.  Marie  gives  the  clearest  index  of  the  business  handled  on 
the  lakes,  though  these  figures  do  not  include  the  tonnage  passing 
between  Lake  Michigan  and  the  East.  Over  one-third  of  the  ton- 
nage of  ships  under  the  American  flag  and  half  the  steamers 
of  1,000  tons  and  upwards  are  on  the  Great  Lakes,  and  last  year 
the  total  tonnage  of  freight  east  and  westbound  passing  over  the 
Lime  Kiln  Crossing  below  Detroit,  which  would  include  the  busi- 
ness of  both  Lake  Michigan  and  Lake  Superior  to  and  from  Lake 
Erie,  amounted  to  over  70,000,000  tons  in  a  season  of  230  days. 
Over  25.000  vessels  passed  Detroit,  an  average  of  one  ship  every 
thirteen  minutes,  and  200  tons  of  freight  per  minute  for  the  season. 
These  figures  exceed  those  of  any  navigable  stream  in  the  world. 
The  records  taken  at  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  locks,  indicate  in  a  gen- 
eral way  the  character  of  this  tonnage  and  the  relative  importance 
of  the  commodities  of  which  it  is  composed.  Last  year  the  total' 
freight  through  the  Soo  amounted  to  51,751,080  tons,  carried  in 
22,155  boats.  It  was  valued  at  $540,000,000,  and  was  divided  in 
the  proportion  about  80  per  cent  eastbound  and  about  20  per  cent 
westbound.     The  principal  eastbound  business  was : 

Iron  ore,  35.357,042  tons;  wheat,  84,271,358  bushels;  other 
grain,  54,341.155  bushels;  flour,  6,495,350  barrels;  copper,  107,633 
tons. 

Westbound : 

Bituminous  coal,  7.728,255  tons;  anthracite  coal,  1,011,275 
tons ;  general  mrchandise,  not  comparatively  heavy,  but  of  relatively 
large  value. 

The  larger  part  of  the  total  is  iron  ore  and  coal,  and  the  east- 
bound  movement  over-shadows  the  westbound  in  tonnage,  and 
also  in  what  is  known  as  "bulk"  freight ;  /.  e.,  ore,  coal  and  grain 
as  distinguished  from  package  freight  or  general  merchandise. 
The  relation  between  the  tonnage  of  the  several  classes  of  freight 
does  not  correspond  with  the  ratios  of  the  values.     In  1905  it  was 


128  The  x-imials  of  the  A)ncrican  Academy 

estimated  that  of  the  total  value  of  traffic  through  the  Soo  during 
that  year,  the  value  of  the  iron  ore  and  products  of  iron  repre- 
sented 2y  per  cent,  cereals,  28  per  cent,  copper,  7  per  cent,  coal,  both 
anthracite  and  bituminous,  5  per  cent,  lumber,  4  per  cent,  and  all 
other  products  28  per  cent. 

The  total  number  of  vessels  on  the  Great  Lakes  early  in  1907. 
with  their  gross  registered  tonnage,  was  as  follows : 

Number.  Gross  tonnage. 

Sailing    vesels    519  269,136 

Steam    vessels    1,844  1,841,438 

Canal    boats    480  50,599 

Barges    209  73,259 

Total    3,052  2,234,432 

Deducting  the  canal  boats,  the  number  of  vessels  actually 
engaged  in  lake  traffic  was  2,572,  and  the  gross  tonnage  2,183,833. 
The  percentage  of  sailing  vessels  is  decreasing  year  by  year,  most 
of  those  now  running  are  on  Lake  Michigan.  In  1895  sailing 
vessels  carried  30  per  cent  of  the  tonnage  passing  the  Soo ;  in 
1905  only  15  per  cent.  The  craft  on  the  lakes  now  range  from  the 
old  boats  of  small  size  to  the  modern  ore  carriers  made  of  steel, 
the  latest  of  which  are  605  feet  over  all,  with  sixty-foot  beam, 
a  depth  of  thirty-two  feet,  and  a  capacity  of  13,000  tons.  The 
barges  referred  to  above  are  generally  towed  by  steamers  of  the 
same  line. 

Iron  Ore  Traffic 

The  principal  iron  mining  ranges  are  the  Mesaba,  Vermilion, 
Gogebic,  Marquette  and  Menominee  ranges,  located  in  the  terri- 
tory adjacent  to  the  western  end  of  Lake  Superior  and  in  the  upper 
peninsula  of  Michigan.  The  principal  ore  docks  are  located  at 
Duluth,  Superior,  Two-Harbors,  Escanaba  and  Marquette.  The 
mines,  as  a  rule,  are  located  from  ten  to  sixty  miles  back  from  the 
water,  and  the  ore  is  hauled  in  specially  constructed  cars  to  the 
docks.  These  docks  are  so  constructed  that  the  cars  from  the 
mines  are  run  out  on  them.  The  hoppers  in  the  bottom  of  the 
cars  are  let  down,  and  ore  is  discharged  by  gravity  into  pockets 
from  the  bottom  of  which  iron  chutes  lead  to  the  vessel  lying 
alongside  the  dock.     Through  the  hatches  of  the  vessel  the  ore 


Transportation  on  the  Great  Lakes  129 

is  chuted  by  gravity  into  the  hold  at  as  many  points  as  there  are 
hatches.  In  this  way  very  Httle  manual  labor  is  necessary.  A 
cargo  of  9,277  tons  of  ore  has  been  loaded  into  the  steamer  "E.  J. 
Earling"  at  Mesaba  Dock  No.  4,  at  Duluth,  in  seventy  minutes 
or  on  an  average  of  7,288  tons  per  hour. 

Just  here  we  have  the  key-note  of  the  transportation  service 
on  the  lakes,  which  is  to  secure  for  each  vessel  the  least  possible 
delay  at  port  of  loading  or  of  discharge  and  consequently  the 
greatest  number  of  round  trips  possible  in  a  season.  The  average 
number  of  trips  that  a  modern  vessel  is  able  to  make  from  the 
head  of  Lake  Superior  to  Lake  Erie  is  usually  estimated  at  twenty 
per  season,  although  with  good  dispatch  at  terminals  some  boats 
may  make  twenty-five,  and  even  more.  Every  additional  trip  in 
a  season  reduces  the  average  cost  of  transportation,  and  the  entire 
carrying  trade  is  ever  pressing  to  reduce  delay,  whether  at  ter- 
minals or  en  route.  To  the  genius  displayed  in  devising  plans 
to  accomplish  this  result  is  due  in  no  small  degree  the  record 
the  lakes  have  made  in  affording  the  cheapest  transportation 
in  the  world. 

Based  on  records  at  the  Soo,  in  1905,  the  average  distance 
that  freight  was  carried  was  833.3  miles.  The  average  cost  was 
.85  mill  per  ton  per  mile,  as  against  an  estimated  average  cost  for 
rail  handling  of  about  four  mills  per  ton  per  mile.  Ingenuity  in 
effecting  dispatch  of  boats  made  it  possible  for  the  steamer  "W.  E. 
Corey"  to  make  thirty  trips  between  Duluth  and  Lake  Erie  ports 
during  the  season  of  1906^  and  in  that  time  to  carry  the  enormous 
total  of  302,000  tons  of  iron  ore. 

The  chief  iron  ore  ranges,  and  to  a  large  extent  the  vessels 
engaged  in  this  trade,  are  owned  by  the  larger  iron  and  steel  com- 
panies of  the  United  States.  The  L'nited  States  Steel  Corporation, 
through  the  Pittsburg  Steamship  Company,  owns  the  largest 
fleet  on  the  lakes,  loi  vessels  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of 
368,165  tons  gross  register,  or  about  16  per  cent  of  the  total 
gross  tonnage  on  the  lakes.  N^e.vf  to  them  is  the  Gilchrist  Trans- 
portation Company,  with  sixty-two  vessels  of  190,890  tons  gross  reg- 
ister ;  the  latter,  however,  is  not  allied  directly  with  the  iron  and 
steel  interests.  The  chief  steel  companies,  in  addition  to  the  United 
States  Steel  Corporation,  now  having  ships  on  the  lakes  to  carry 
their  ore  are  the  Lackawanna  Steel  Company,  the  Jones  and  Laugh- 


130  TJic  Annals  of  the  American  .dcadeiuy 

lin  Steel  Company,  the  Cambria  Steel  Company,  the  Tonawanda 
Iron  and  Steel  Company. 

The  largest  steamer  on  the  lakes  is  the  "\Vm.  B.  Kerr,"  hav- 
ing a  capacity  of  14,000  tons  of  iron  ore.  She  is  the  first  of  three 
sister  boats,  and  there  are  others  capable  of  handling  from  ten 
to  twelve  thousand  tons. 

The  record  cargo  of  ore  is  held  by  the  steamer  "Henry  H. 
Rogers"  from  Escanaba  to  South  Chicago,  13-333  tons,  and  over 
and  over  again  this  year  greater  cargoes  of  freight  have  been 
carried  down  the  lakes  than  have  ever  gone  out  of  the  harbor 
of  New  York.  The  depth  of  water  in  New  York  harbor  does  not 
permit  the  largest  ocean  steamers  to  load  to  their  full  capacity, 
and  the  largest  vessels  are  the  fast  passenger  ships  that  carry 
but  little  freight. 

The  rate  at  which  ore  is  carried  on  the  lakes  is  practically 
fixed  by  the  Pittsburg  Steamship  Company,  owned  by  the  United 
States  Steel  Corporation,  which  decides  what  rates  these  boats 
will  carry  for,  and  the  price  they  will  give  others  to  carry  the 
balance  of  the  ore  used  by  them.  In  1907  it  was  seventy-five  cents 
per  ton  from  the  head  of  Lake  Superior  to  the  ore  dock  on  Lake 
Erie,  and  from  Marquette  seventy  cents  per  ton ;  while  from  Es- 
canaba to  Lake  Erie  ports  the  charge  was  sixty  cents  per  ton,  and 
from  Escanaba  to  Chicago,  a  haul  entirely  in  Lake  Michigan,  only 
thirty-five  cents  per  ton. 

In  1906  the  charge  for  unloading  iron  ore  was  twenty  cents 
per  ton,  while  vessels  that  required  trimming  in  order  to  adjust 
their  cargo,  paid  about  three  cents  per  ton  for  that  service.  A 
cargo  of  ore  loaded  in  a  modern  ore  carrier,  however,  does  not 
require  to  be  trimmed. 

The  docks  for  the  discharge  of  ore,  unless  such  ore  is  for 
some  iron  industry  located  directly  on  one  of  the  lakes,  are  gen- 
erally owned  and  operated  by  the  railroads  leading  south  and  east 
from  Lake  Erie  to  the  furnaces  of  Pittsburg  and  the  ^Mahoning 
and  Shenango  \'alleys.  a  distance  of  approximately  75  to  150  miles, 
or  even  farther,  to  the  furnaces  in  Eastern  Pennsylvania,  where 
the  ore  is  converted  into  iron  and  steel  by  the  use  of  limestone  and 
coke.  Were  it  not  for  the  necessity  of  using  these  articles  in  the 
manufacture  of  iron,  and  for  the  fact  that  iron  ore,  on  account 
of   the    cheapness    of   lake    transportation,    is    more    economically 


Transportation  on  the  Great  Lakes  131 

brought  to  the  coke,  rather  than  the  coke  to  the  ore,  the  center  of 
these  industries  might  be  in  the  neighborhood  of  Duluth  rather  than 
at  Pittsburg;  and  the  tonnage  handled  on  the  lakes  might  be 
comparatively  insignificant. 

The  docks  are  located  at  Ashtabula,  Cleveland,  Conneaut, 
Buffalo,  Lorain,  Erie,  Toledo,  etc.,  all  on  the  south  shore  of  Lake 
Erie,  and  handle  about  86  per  cent  of  all  the  iron  ore  carried  on 
the  lakes.  The  above  points  rank  in  importance  about  in  the  order 
named,  the  largest  number  of  tons  handled  in  1906  being  at  Ash- 
tabula, with  a  total  of  6,833,852  tons.  The  amount  of.  ore  received 
at  Lake  Erie  ports  was,  in  1906,  32,076,757  tons,  as  compared  with 
only  17,014,076  tons  in  1901,  a  fact  which  furnishes  a  clear  idea 
of  the  increase  in  the  iron  ore  trade  during  the  past  few  years. 
The  difference  between  the  total  output  and  the  receipts  at  Lake  Erie 
ports  is  understood  to  be  in  the  ore  for  furnaces  at  Detroit  and 
South  Chicago.  Practically  the  entire  success  of  a  dock  for  re- 
ceiving ore  from  a  vessel,  like  a  dock  for  loading  vessels,  depends 
on  the  ability  to  unload  quickly  and  cheaply,  and  place  in  cars 
the  tonnage  that  is  daily  brought  alongside  the  docks  by  the 
gigantic  ore  carriers  so  constructed  as  to  permit  the  hoisting  and 
dumping  by  the  most  modern  appliances,  both  electric  and  other- 
wise, of  the  greatest  number  of  tons  per  hour  in  order  to  accomplish 
the  quickest  possible  release  of  the  vessel  and  effect  the  maximum 
saving  in  the  cost  of  operation. 

The  efficiency  of  the  machinery  for  unloading  is  shown  by 
the  record  of  the  "George  W.  Perkins,"  10,346  tons  having  been 
taken  off  in  four  hours  and  ten  minutes,  or  at  an  average  rate 
of  2,582  tons  per  hour.  Moreover,  this  record  is  being  approxi- 
mated in  the  unloading  of  all  similar  boats,  and  it  is  the  ambition 
of  the  managers  of  every  dock  to  hold  the  unloading  record.  The 
records  are  being  lowered  year  by  year,  and  often  more  than  once 
in  a  season. 

Grain  Traffic 

Next  in  importance  to  the  management  of  the  ore  traffic  is 
the  handling  of  grain.  This  trade  is  participated  in  by  all  kinds 
and  sizes  of  vessels,  and  consequently  there  is  more  fluctuation 
in  grain  rates  than  in  those  for  any  other  commodity.  Grain 
originates   beyond   the   western   lake   ports   and   is   brought   there 


132  The  Annals  of  the  /Inierican  Academy 

by  rail  and  placed  in  elevators.  From  the  elevators  it  is  shipped 
by  vessel,  generally  to  the  ports  of  Lake  Erie,  the  cost  by  lake 
being  less  than  by  rail.  At  the  western  lake  ports  elevators  in  con- 
nection with  and  often  owned  by  the  prominent  eastern  rail  lines, 
receive  the  grain,  and  in  due  course  load  it  into  cars  for  export 
via  eastern  seaboard  cities  or  for  transportation  to  interior  points. 
The  rates  per  bushel  for  carrying  grain  depend  absolutely  on  the 
number  of  boats  available  for  the  trade.  Charters  for  the  season, 
such  as  are  made  for  ore  in  large  quantities,  are  not  character- 
istic of  the  grain-carrying  trade.  When  grain  is  wanted  for  any 
particular  vessel  the  rate  depends  on  the  supply  of  or  demand  for 
vessels ;  or,  in  other  words,  upon  what  happens  to  be  the  immediate 
condition  or  the  number  of  the  boats  available  at  the  time,  or  upon 
the  desire  of  the  shipper  for  immediate  forwarding.  The  rate  thus 
made  per  bushel  for  forwarding  say,  to  Buffalo,  is  known  as  the 
"going  rate,"  and  is  a  matter  of  public  information  on  the  various 
boards  of  trade  at  the  points  of  shipment  and  remains  the  standard 
until  altered  by  a  change  in  the  conditions  above  mentioned.  The 
average  rate  on  wheat  from  Chicago  to  Buffalo  was  1.7  cents 
per  bushel  in  1906,  and  from  Duluth  to  Buffalo  2.2  cents  per  bushel. 
Grain  is  the  only  commodity  that  is  occasionally  handled  by  what 
are  known  as  the  package  freight  lines,  which  are  engaged  in 
through  traffic  in  connection  with  railroad  lines.  The  boats  of 
these  package  freight  lines  as  a  rule  take  grain  only  when  it  is 
necessary  or  expedient  to  fill  out  their  freight  capacity.  At  such 
times  they  bid  for  grain  in  competition  with  the  bulk  carriers, 
none  of  it  handled  by  the  package  lines,  however,  is  taken  on  through 
rates  to  interior  eastern  points,  but  only  to  eastern  lake  port  ele- 
vators, from  which  the  grain  is  reforwarded  to  ultimate  destination. 

In  loading  grain  from  the  elevators  it  is  spouted  into  the 
holds  of  the  vessels  through  the  hatches,  and  unloaded  by  placing 
an  elevator  "leg"  through  the  hatches  into  the  vessel.  This  so- 
called  leg  is  a  contrivance  on  which  is  arranged  an  endless  chain 
of  buckets  which  scoop  the  grain  out  of  the  boat,  carrying  it  up 
and  into  the  elevator. 

The  largest  grain  cargo  in  number  of  bushels  carried  but  not 
in  tons,  was  417,300  bushels  of  oats  brought  into  Buffalo  by  the 
"Mary  C.  Elphicke." 

The   rates   on   which   grain    is   carried   by   railroad    from   the 


Transportation  on  the  Great  Lakes  133 

eastern  port  elevator,  if  it  goes  to  points  east,  are  known  as  "At 
the  East  rates."  This  being  a  term  used  to  indicate  that  the  rate 
inckides  the  cost  of  elevation  from  the  vessel  at  eastern  lake  port 
and  subsequent  loading  to  cars,  which  service  the  ordinary  rail  rate 
would  not  include. 

Lumber 

Lumber  is  the  other  item  of  eastbound  bulk  freight  on  the 
lakes.  The  largest  individual,  although  small,  fleet  in  this  trade 
is  that  of  the  Hines  Lumber  Company  of  Chicago.  The  rates 
this  year  have  averaged,  from  Lake  Superior  to  Lake  Erie  ports 
$2.25  per  thousand  feet,  and  from  Lake  Michigan  to  Lake  Erie 
ports  $2.00  per  thousand  feet.  These  rates  are  made  by  an  asso- 
ciation, with  which  practically  all  the  lumber  carriers  are  identified. 
The  trade,  however,  seems  to  be  falling  off. 

Westbound  Coal  Tonnage 
Coal  is  practically  the  only  article  handled  in  bulk  westbound. 
This  business  is  peculiar  in  its  method  of  handling,  for  coal  is  the 
only  westbound  cargo  available  for  ore  carriers,  and  were  it  not 
for  coal  these  ore  carriers  would  go  light  westbound,  as  they  often 
do,  in  order  that  they  may  secure  as  many  loads  of  ore  as  possible 
in  a  season.  The  result  of  this  is  that  coal  is  taken  west  at  rates 
that  would  otherwise  be  impossible.  It  is  hard  to  estimate  the 
value  of  this  to  the  people  of  the  Northwest,  to  whom  the  coal 
is  a  necessity.  Coal  is  handled  in  and  out  of  the  ship  without 
charge  to  the  vessel  and  last  year  the  hard  coal  rate  averaged, 
from  BuflFalo  to  Chicago,  46  cents  and  to  Duluth  35  cents  per  ton. 
Soft  coal  averaged  from  Ohio  ports  to  Chicago  46  cents  and  to 
Duluth  35  cents  per  ton.  As  practically  all  the  ore  boats  are  bound 
to  Lake  Superior  the  rates  thence  are  lowest.  Many  of  the  big 
eastern  coal  companies  have  their  own  facilities  and  arrangements 
for  handling  coal  at  western  lake  ports. 

Package  Freight  Service 

We  may  now   consider  the   relation   of   the  package    freight 

lines    to    the    traffic    of   the    lakes.     These    lines    are    engaged    in 

carrying  all  kinds  of  merchandise  in  such  packages  and  of  such  size 

as  can  be  transferred  from  cars  to  boats.     Practically  all  passenger 


134  ^/^^^  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

steamers  on  the  lakes  also  carry  package  freight,  although  all  pack- 
age freight  lines  do  not  carry  passengers,  and  in  fact  the  big 
package  lines,  in  operation  between  eastern  and  western  lake  ports, 
with  perhaps  few  exceptions,  do  not  carry  any  passengers,  being 
made  up  exclusively  of  package  freight  boats.  The  most  modern 
of  these  carry  about  5,000  tons,  and,  as  a  rule,  all  of  this  is  loaded 
between  decks  or  in  the  hold  reached  through  openings  in 
the  decks,  the  freight  being  handled  in  and  out  through  gangways 
in  the  sides  of  the  boat  and  up  and  down  gang  planks  from  and  to 
the  docks. 

There  are  several  package  freight  lines,  but  they  may  be  divided 
into  two  large  classes : 

First.  Those  that  make  short  runs  between  nearby  ports  or 
ports  on  the  same  lake,  or  are  engaged  in  carrying  freight,  generally 
not  of  considerable  volume,  for  local  delivery  at  the  ports  at  which 
they  call. 

Second.  Those  lines  that  have  through  rates  and  prorating 
arrangements  with  the  larger  eastern  and  western  rail  lines,  with 
which  they  connect. 

The  lines  in  the  first  class,  on  account  of  the  generally  local 
aspect  of  their  service  and  of  the  fact  that  they  are  not  usually 
a  link  in  a  through  transportation  service,  may  be  passed  over 
without  discussion,  in  order  that  fuller  consideration  may  be  given 
to  the  other  and  more  important  class  of  package  freight  lines. 

Although  the  business  carried  between  ports  on  the  Great 
Lakes  by  these  lines  is  considerable  in  quantity  and  value,  their 
chief  traffic  is  that  turned  over  to  them  as  intermediate  carriers 
between  the  rail  lines  leading  east  to  the  western  lake  ports  of 
Chicago,  Milwaukee,  Gladstone  and  Duluth.  etc..  and  west  to  the 
eastern  lake  ports  of  Buffalo,  Erie,  Cleveland,  Detroit,  Port  Huron, 
etc. — this  business  to  be  again  turned  over  by  the  lake  lines  to  rail 
connections  at  the  end  of  their  route.  To  illustrate  by  a  concrete 
example :  business  for  rail  and  lake  shipment  may  be  taken  in  New 
York  by  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  to  Erie  and  delivered  to  its 
lake  connection,  the  Erie  and  Western  Trans])ortation  Company, 
which  takes  the  freight  by  water  to  Duluth  or  Chicago,  as  the  case 
may  be,  and  again  turns  it  over  to  connecting  rail  lines  to  be  deliv- 
ered by  them  to  consignees  at  St.  Paul  or  ^Minneapolis.  The  same 
service  may  be  performed  in  the  other  direction  from  Minneapolis, 
for  example,  to  New  York. 


Transportation  on  the  Great  Lakes  135 

As  these  lines  all  have  their  rail  connections,  they  may  in  turn 
be  subdivided  into  two  classes,  according  to  the  efficiency  of  their 
service.  Some  of  them  have  direct  routes,  east  of  the  lakes,  for 
example,  to  and  from  New  York,  in  connection  with  the  big  trunk 
line  roads,  such  as  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  and  the  New  York 
Central,  while  others  are  dependent  on  a  short  water  haul,  like 
the  National  Despatch  which  takes  business  by  water  from  New 
York  to  New  London,  Conn.,  and  there  turns  it  over  to  the  Central 
Vermont  Railroad,  which  in  turn  has  a  long  haul  in  connection 
with  the  Grand  Trunk  to  Depot  Harbor,  Canada,  where  it  is  at 
last  delivered  to  boats  to  be  carried  to  Chicago  and  points  beyond. 
Another  route  is  via  canal  boat  through  the  Erie  Canal  from  New- 
York  to  Buffalo  (requiring  from  twelve  to  fourteen  days  on  the 
canal),  where  the  freight  is  turned  over  to  lake  lines  for  forwarding 
west. 

Rates  by  the  Lake  Lines 

As  a  result  of  the  dififerent  services  thus  offered  there  are  three 
kinds  of  rates  via  the  lakes:  (i)  westbound,  from  New  York  City, 
known  as  standard  lake  rates;  (2)  differential  lake  rates,  and 
(3)  canal  and  lake  rates.  These  three  are  represented  by  the 
following  rates  in  cents  per  hundred  pounds,  on  the  various  classes. 

New  York  to  Chicago : 

123456 

Standard  Lake 62         .54         41         -30         -25         -21 

Differential  Lake 52        46        -35        -26        .22        .19 

Canal  and  Lake 42        -36        .29        .23        .21        .18 

It  will  be  seen  how  complicated  must  be  the  adjustment  of 
rates  by  the  various  routes,  and  how  greatly  the  charges  must 
vary  in  accordance  with  the  services  performed,  particularly  when 
it  is  remembered  that  the  service  between  these  points  is  also  per- 
formed by  all-rail  routes,  differential  rail  routes,  and  by  an  ocean- 
and-rail  route  via  Norfolk.  These  routes  in  turn  have  the  following 
rates,  first  class,  in  cents  per  hundred  pounds,  New  York  to  Chicago : 
all-rail,  75  cents;  differential  rail,  69  cents;  ocean  and  rail,  65  cents. 

During  the  season  of  open  navigation  a  shipper  in  New  York 
who  wishes  to  forward  a  hundred-pound  case  of  blankets  to  Chi- 
cago, has,  among  others,  a  choice  of  the  following  routes,  in  connec- 
tion with  each  of  which  the  charge  would  be  in  cents  the  amount 
mentioned:  all-rail,  75  cents;  differential  rail,  69  cents;  ocean  and 


136  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

rail,  65  cents;  standard  lake,  62  cents;  differential  lake,  52  cents, 
and  canal  and  lake,  42  cents. 

Prominent  among  the  commodities  handled  by  the  package 
lines,  westbound,  are  sugar  and  cement.  The  eastbound  business, 
however,  is  the  heaviest  and  consists  almost  exclusively  of  flour, 
mill  feed  and  copper,  with  occasional  deck  loads  of  shingles,  and 
now  and  then  grain  if  the  vessels  are  unable  to  secure  a  full  load 
of  package  freight. 

Ownership   and  Rail   Connections  of  Lake  Lines 

As  between  the  standard  and  the  differential  lake  lines,  much 
the  more  important  are  the  standard  lake  lines  operating  between 
Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Michigan  or  Lake  Superior  ports.  These 
lines  are,  with  the  exception  of  the  Soo  line,  generally  owned  and 
operated  by  the  eastern  trunk  lines,  as  feeders  at  their  eastern  lake 
ports.     The  railroad-lake  lines  are : 

Operating  to  and  from  Owned  bv 

The     Erie     &     Western   Lake  Michigan  and  Lake   The  Pennsylvania  R.  R. 
T  r  a  n  s  p  ortation    Co.       Superior. 
(Anchor  Line) 
The      Western      Transit   Lake  Michigan  and  Lake   N.  Y.  C.  &  H.  R.  R.  R. 
Co.  Superior. 

The     Union     Steamboat  Lake  Michigan    Erie  Railroad. 

Line. 

Mutual    Transit    Co Lake  Superior   Lehigh  Valley  R.  R. 

D.,  L.  &  W.  R.  R. 

Erie  R.  R. 

N.  Y.  C.  &  H.  R.  R.  R. 

Lackawanna  Transporta-  Lake   Michigan    D.,  L.  &  W.  R.  R. 

tion   Co. 

Lehigh  Valley  Transpor-  Lake  Michigan    Lehigh  Valley  R.  R. 

tation  Co. 

Minneapolis,   St.    Paul  &  Lake  Michigan    Minneapolis.   St.   Paul  & 

Buffalo  Steamship  Co.  Sault  Ste.  Marie  R.  R. 

(Soo  Line) 

None  of  these  lines,  with  the  exception  of  the  Anchor  Line, 
operate  passenger  steamers.  Like  the  carriers  of  bulk  freight, 
every  effort  is  made  by  the  owners  of  these  lines  to  accomplish 
as  many  trips  in  a  season  as  possible,  and  the  boats  are  consequently, 
with  the  exception  of  passenger  boats  during  the  passenger  season, 
not  operated  on  any  schedule  but  are  turned  as  rapidly  as  possible. 
To  accompli.sh  this  large  warehouses  are  maintained  at  eastern  lake 


Traiisportatiun  on  the  Great  Lakes  137 

ports  by  these  lines,  in  order  that  the  cargoes  of  eastbound  vessels 
may  be  immediately  unloaded  for  subsequent  shipment  cast.  These 
warehouses  are  equipped  with  various  devices  to  secure  the  greatest 
possible  dispatch  in  the  loading  and  unloading  of  boats,  and  in  many 
cases  separate  houses  are  devoted  to  the  east  and  westbound  busi- 
ness. At  the  western  lake  ports  the  facilities  for  through  business 
are  provided  by  the  delivering  rail  lines  at  whose  terminals  the 
package  freight  lines  call  for  or  deliver  business  routed  in  their  care. 

On  account  of  the  slower  speed  of  handling  and  of  the  in- 
creased number  of  transfers  incident  to  business  shipped  by  rail 
and  lake,  as  compared  with  all-rail,  the  rates  are  lower  via  the 
lakes  than  via  the  all-rail  routes.  The  present  difference  is  illus- 
trated by  the  17^^  cent  rate  per  hundred  pounds  on  flour  from 
Chicago  to  New  York,  via  lake  and  rail  as  compared  with  igyi 
cents  per  hundred  pounds  all-rail,  and  by  the  westbound  rate  of 
23 ^^2  cents  per  hundred  pounds,  New  York  to  Chicago,  on  sugar 
via  rail  and  lake,  as  compared  with  26  cents  per  hundred  pounds 
all-rail.  The  difference  between  these  figures,  in  each  case,  is 
known  as  a  differential.  It  represents  the  amount  under  the  all- 
rail  rate  charged  by  the  standard  rail  lines,  which  experience  and 
long  custom  has  established  as  being  considered  the  difference 
between  the  value  of  the  two  kinds  of  service.  The  retail  prices 
of  granulated  sugar  and  flour,  per  hundred  pounds,  being  $5.50 
and  $3.50  respectively,  it  will  be  seen  what  a  comparatively  small 
part  the  cost  of  transportation  must  play  in  the  price  of  such 
commodities  to  the  consumer. 

It  is  difficult  to  explain  the  various  rates  in  existence  over  the 
several  routes  between  the  East  and  West ;  but  it  should  be  noted 
that  the  service  via  the  lakes  requires  a  transfer,  where  none  is 
necessary  when  shipments  are  all-rail,  and  that  there  has  grown  up 
a  fixed  relation  between  the  rates  all-rail  and  the  rates  rail  and  lake, 
based  on  relative  speeds,  and  that  when  reductions  or  advances  are 
made  in  all-rail  rates,  consequent  reductions  or  advances  follow 
in  the  rates  rail  and  lake,  either  eastbound  or  westbound.  These 
principles  of  adjustment  arc  further  carried  out  in  changes  in 
rates  by  the  differential  rail-and-lake  lines,  and  the  canal  lines. 

The  various  standard  lake  lines  were  primarily  considered  as 
feeders  for  their  rail  connections,  and  in  order  that  other  railroads 
not  equipped  with  lake  lines  may  not  reap  the  advantage  of  the 


138  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

tonnage  thus  provided,  through  prorating  arrangements  have  been 
made  only  between  the  lake  lines  and  their  rail  owners,  or  such 
other  railroads  as  the  owners  of  the  lake  line  think  it  profitable  to 
connect  with. 

Summary — Importance  of  Service  of  Package  Freight  Lines 

The  foregoing  discussion  shows  that  by  far  the  largest  part 
of  the  tonnage  of  the  lakes  consists  of  ore,  coal,  grain,  etc.,  handled 
in  bulk  by  vessels  ready  to  go  from  port  to  port  for  the  highest  com- 
pensation they  can  secure  for  their  services.  On  account  of  the 
great  quantities  handled,  and  the  ease  with  which  it  is  loaded  and 
unloaded,  and  also  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the  government  has 
provided  a  free  way  and  free  harbors,  the  rates  for  transportation 
on  the  lakes  are  so  low  as  to  make  unfair  a  comparison  of  those 
rates  with  average  charges  per  ton  per  mile  via  rail  lines. 

The  bulk  freight  handled  on  the  Great  Lakes  consists  almost 
exclusively  of  raw  materials  which  can  be  moved  at  such  low  rates 
as  to  exclude  competition  by  all-rail  routes.  With  the  package 
freight  business  the  situation  is  diiYerent  and  there  is  active  rivalry 
between  the  rail  and  water  lines.  The  charges  for  package  freight 
made  by  rail  and  water  lines  must  be  approximately  equal  because 
the  difference  in  costs  of  the  services  by  competing  routes  is  rela- 
tively small. 

Although  the  tonnage  of  package  freight  handled  on  the 
Great  Lakes  is  small  as  compared  with  the  volume  of  bulk  traffic, 
the  service  performed  by  the  package  freight  steamers  is  highly 
important.  The  package  freight  lake  lines  assist  their  rail  connec- 
tions by  adding  to  the  volume  and  regularity  of  their  traffic,  and 
afiford  the  shipping  public  the  choice  between  various  routes.  The 
shorter  and  more  expensive  routes  provide  a  quicker  service;  the 
more  circuitious,  and  to  the  shipper  the  less  expensive  routes,  a 
slower  service. 

There  is  a  business  demand  for  both  of  these  services.  The 
package  freight  lines  on  the  lakes  perform  a  function  of  value 
to  the  carriers  and  to  the  public,  and  occupy  an  important  place 
in  the  elaborate  and  delicately  adjusted  system  of  transportation 
that  has  grown  up  in  the  highly  developed  industrial  section  of 
the  United  States  lying  between  the  Mississippi  River  and  the 
north  Atlantic  seaboard. 


THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  OHIO  RIVER 


By  John  L.  Vance, 
President  Ohio  Valley  Improvement  Association,  Columbus,  O. 


In  a  discussion  of  the  improvement  of  the  Ohio  river,  it  will 
not  be  inappropriate  to  state  at  the  outset  the  claims  on  which  the 
six  Ohio  river  states — Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  Ohio,  Ken- 
tucky, Indiana  and  Illinois — base  their  demands  upon  the  general 
government  for  the  canalization  of  the  river  from  Pittsburg  to 
its  junction  with  the  Mississippi  at  Cairo,  a  distance  of  one  thousand 
miles  as  the  stream  meanders.  The  Ohio  alone,  of  all  navigable 
rivers  in  the  United  States,  carries  tonnage  from  its  source  to  its 
mouth.  It  drains  the  richest  valley  in  the  civilized  world ;  and  the 
river  might  be  of  the  greatest  possible  benefit  not  alone  to  the  com- 
mercial, manufacturing,  mining  and  agricultural  industries  of  the 
six  states,  but  of  the  greatest  possible  value  to  the  trade  and  com- 
merce of  the  United  States,  and,  unquestionably,  the  greatest  of  all 
feeders  to  the  Panama  Canal. 

The  manufactures  of  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  Ohio,  Ken- 
tucky, Indiana  and  Illinois,  in  1905,  amounted  to  $4,979,453,665  in 
value.  Of  that  total  Pennsylvania  contributed  $i,955'55l'332  I  Illi- 
nois, $1,410,342,129;  Ohio,  $960,811,857;  Kentucky,  $159,753,966; 
Indiana,  $393,954.305 ;  and  West  Virginia,  $99,040,076.  The  three 
crops  of  corn,  wheat  and  hay  were  of  the  total  farm  value  of  $646,- 
090,621,  with  other  crops  in  proportion.  The  wealth  of  the  six  states 
was  $25,941,897,242,  distributed  as  follows:  Pennsylvania,  $9,315,- 
140,116;  Illinois,  $6,976,476,400;  Ohio,  $5,019,004,453;  Indiana,  $2,- 
606,493,004;  Kentucky,  $1,365,130,718;  and  West  Virginia,  $659,- 
652,551.  The  total  wealth  of  the  United  States  was  $88,517,306,775 ; 
the  six  Ohio  river  states  contain  approximately  one-third  of  the 
entire  wealth  of  the  country,  while  the  remaining  members  of  the 
Union,  forty  states  and  territories,  contributed  the  remaining  two- 
thirds. 

During  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1905,  according  to  the 
report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue,  the  six  Ohio  river 
states  paid  into  the  Federal  treasury  not  only  one  full  half  of  uU 


140  TJic  .liiitals  of  the  .liiicricaii  Acadony 

internal  revenue  collected,  but  $i6,cxx),ooo  in  excess  of  that  full 
half. 

Such  are  the  Ohio  river  states,  which  are  demanding  the  canal- 
ization of  the  Ohio  from  Pittsburg  to  Cairo  to  a  depth  of  nine 
feet.  It  is  a  demand  made  in  the  interests  not  alone  of  their  trade 
and  commerce  but  in  the  name  of  the  trade  and  commerce  of  the 
entire  country.  It  is  a  demand,  primarily,  it  is  true,  of  the  Ohio 
river  states — for  they  furnish  the  coal  for  the  markets  of  the  South ; 
the  coal  and  the  natural  gas  that  heats  the  furnaces  and  supplies  the 
forges ;  that  lights  and  heats  the  schools,  the  churches,  and  the 
dwellings.  They  produce  the  salt,  the  fire  clay,  the  timber,  the  ores. 
They  manufacture  the  pottery,  the  steel  rails,  the  structural  iron 
and  steel,  and  finished  glass  and  wood  products  of  the  country. 
They  stand  at  the  doors  of  the  government  confident  in  the  jus- 
tice of  their  demands,  and  in  the  knowledge  that  the  benefit  to 
them  would  be  of  immeasurable  benefit  to  their  sister  states,  espe- 
cially to  those  of  the  great  valleys  between  the  Rockies  and  the 
Appalachian  ranges,  but  also  of  immeasurable  value  to  the  trade 
and  the  commerce  of  all  other  sections  of  the  country. 

As  early  as  1804  the  legislature  of  Kentucky  incorporated  the 
company  organized  for  the  purpose  of  constructing  the  Louisville 
and  Portland  Canal,  with  a  capital  stock  of  $600,000,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  aiding  navigation  by  avoiding  the»falls  of  the  Ohio  at  Louis- 
ville. Of  the  capital  stock,  3.665  shares  of  the  par  value  of  $100 
were  held  by  the  citizens  of  New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  Missouri  and  Kentucky,  with  the 
Federal  Government  holding  2,333  shares.  Although  contracts 
were  soon  let  for  the  work,  it  was  not  begun  until  1825,  and  not 
until  December,  1830,  was  the  canal  opened  for  navigation.  Dur- 
ing the  first  twelve  months  of  its  operation  406  steamboats  and 
375  flatboats,  w^ith  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  76,323  tons,  passed 
through  the  canal,  while  for  the  month  of  July,  1907,  the  tonnage 
passing  through  the  canal  on  steamers  and  barges  was  1,100,533 
tons.  For  the  corres])onding  month  of  1906  there  were  805,672 
tons.  The  canal  was  originally  under  state  control,  but  is  now 
under  the  control  of  the  Federal  Government. 

About  1825  Colonel  Long,  of  the  engineer  corps,  in  charge 
of  the  improvement  of  the  Ohio,  put  into  execution  his  plan  of  con- 
structing wing  dams,  instead  of  the  older  plan  of  cutting  channels 


The  Improvonciit  of  the  Ohio  River  141 

through  sand-bars  and  shoals,  and  of  that  work  Hall^  says:  "To 
cut  a  channel  through  a  bank  of  sand  would  not  be  impracticable, 
but  the  excavation  thus  made  would  be  filled  up  by  the  deposits 
of  the  next  flood.  About  ten  years  ago  Colonel  Long,  of  the  topo- 
graphical engineers,  was  instructed  by  the  government  to  make  an 
experiment,  and  adopted  the  plan  of  throwing  out  wing  dams  from 
each  side  of  the  river,  so  as  to  confine  the  current  within  narrow 
bounds  and  to  give  sufficient  volume  to  wash  a  channel  for  itself. 
He  spent  one  summer  in  constructing  such  a  work  at  Hender- 
son, 200  miles  below  Louisville.  The  dams  were  constructed  of 
piles  driven  into  the  sand  and  rising  but  a  few  inches  above  the 
surface.  Not  a  trace  of  the  work  of  Colonel  Long  remains  to-day, 
and  Hall  well  says  that  "the  objection  to  any  of  these  measures  is 
that  they  have  not  been  attempted  on  a  scale  of  magnitude  becoming 
their  importance,  and  urged  with  all  the  energy  becoming  a  great 
nation." 

Wing  dams  were  constructed  at  many  points  along  the  river. 
But  experience  demonstrated  that  they  would  not  furnish  the  relief 
sought — would  not  maintain  a  sufficient  stage  of  water  to  meet  the 
demands  of  commerce.  Dredge  boats  were  brought  into  service, 
but  they  were  found  to  be  unavailing.  Hence,  the  work  of  improv- 
ing the  Ohio  languished.  For  many  years  the  efforts  in  its  behalf 
were  sporadic  and  confined  to  local  necessities,  real  or  fancied.  The 
sneer  of  Randolph,  of  Roanoke,  that  the  Ohio  was  a  stream,  which 
was  dried  up  during  six  months  of  the  year  and  frozen  over  during 
the  other  six  months,  together  with  "pork  barrel"  insinuations,  not 
only  stayed  the  improvement  of  the  Ohio,  but  of  all  rivers.  The 
coming  of  the  railroad  added  to  the  neglect  with  which  the  Ohio, 
the  greatest  tonnage-bearing  stream  in  the  United  States,  was 
treated. 

One  important  enterprise,  however,  was  undertaken — the  build- 
ing of  a  lock  and  movable  dam  at  Davis  Island,  about  five  and  a  half 
miles  below  Pittsburg.  This  daiii  was  undertaken  and  completed  for 
the  purpose  of  furnishing  a  pool  six  feet  in  depth,  in  which  tow- 
boats  and  barges  might  find  safe  harbor  and  be  ready  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  a  "coal  boat  rise"  and  move  down  the  river  to  the  mar- 
kets on  the  Ohio  and  the  Mississippi.  Rut  this  improvement  was 
made  in  a  half-hearted  way,  and  with  no  belief  that  it  would  become 

1  "  Statistics  of  West  Cincinnati,  "  1836. 


142  The  Annals  uf  tJic  .liiicrican  Academy 

one  in  a  chain  of  similar  locks  and  movable  dams  that,  when  built 
along  the  river's  entire  length,  would  give  a  permanent  and  reliable 
depth  of  nine  feet  of  water  throughout  the  year.  Appropriations 
for  the  Davis  Island  dam  were  slow  ;  the  work  was  prosecuted  with- 
out energy.  Finally,  when  completed,  it  was  found  to  work  suc- 
cessfully; the  pool  was  formed,  and  the  advantage  of  even  this 
beginning  of  something  "permanent"'  exceeded  all  expectations ;  but 
with  the  completion  of  this  lock  and  movable  dam,  permanent 
efforts  to  improve  the  river  practically  ceased. 

Whether  it  was  because  of  the  total  inadequacy  of  the  railroad 
as  a  means  of  transportation,  or  whether  it  was  because  of  an 
awakening  of  the  Ohio  \'alley  to  the  immeasurable  capacities  of  the 
Ohio  river  as  a  tonnage  bearer  is  immaterial  to  the  present  purpose ; 
the  awakening  came,  resulting  in  the  organization  of  the  Ohio  Val- 
ley Improvement  Association,  at  Cincinnati,  in  1895.  Since  that 
time  there  has  been  persistent  and  successful  effort  for  the  perma- 
nent improvement  of  the  river  to  a  nine-foot  stage  from  Pitts- 
burg to  Cairo  by  a  series  of  locks  and  movable  dams. 

At  the  first  meeting  of  the  association  there  were  delegates 
present  representing  the  mining,  manufacturing,  commercial,  agri- 
cultural and  the  river  interests  of  the  Ohio  Valley.  They  were  men 
who  fully  realized  that  the  permanent  improvement  of  the  Ohio  to 
a  navigable  stage  ample  for  the  largest  boats  was  imperatively 
demanded  by  every  community  and  interest  in  the  Ohio  and  Mis- 
sissippi \'alleys.  The  association  has  grown  in  numbers  and  in 
influence  with  the  passing  of  every  year.  Annual  conventions  have 
been  held  regularly  at  important  places  along  the  river,  the  last  one 
at  Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  on  the  14th  and  15th  of  November,  1907. 

The  association  at  first  was  of  the  opinion  that  a  six-foot  stage 
would  be  sufficient ;  but  experience  demonstrated  otherwise,  and  in 
1902  the  nine-foot  stage  became  the  platform  of  the  association. 
It  is  gratifving  to  be  able  to  state  that  the  nine-foot  stage  has  been 
accepted  as  the  true  standard  of  improvement  of  the  Ohio,  and  the 
Congress  of  the  United  States  is  now  irrevocably  committed  to  it. 

I  have  said  that  the  Ohio  is  unique  in  the  fact  that  it  is  the 
only  stream  carrying  tonnage  from  its  source  to  its  mouth.  It  not 
only  carries  tonnage  from  its  source  to  its  mouth,  but  it  supplies 
almost  wholly  the  tonnage  on  the  Misissippi  from  Cairo  to  New 
Orleans,  for  on  the  great  Mississippi  to-day  there  is  no  packet  ply- 


TIic  Improvement  of  the  Ohio  River  143 

ing  between  St.  Louis  and  New  Orleans,  nor  any  between  Memphis 
and  New  Orleans,  save  the  packets  that  steam  out  of  the  Ohio  into 
the  Mississippi. 

Of  the  work  that  has  been  done  for  the  permanent  improve- 
ment of  the  Ohio  since  the  organization  of  the  Ohio  Valley  Improve- 
ment Association  in  1895,  only  a  brief  summary  can  be  given. 
The  first  important  action  by  Congress  was  an  appropriation 
for  the  survey  and  fixing  of  sites  for  locks  and  movable  dams  from 
Pittsburg  to  the  mouth  of  the  Muskingum  river.  This  was  followed 
by  a  survey  of  like  character  from  the  mouth  of  the  Muskingum  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Big  Miami.  By  these  two  surveys  it  was  found 
necessary  to  construct  and  sites  were  fixed  for  thirty-seven  locks 
and  movable  dams. 

On  this  stretch  of  river,  covering  about  one-half  its  entire 
length,  appropriations  have  been  made  for  the  prosecution  of  the 
work  on  more  than  one-third  of  the  locks  and  dams.  The  first 
six,  immediately  below  Pittsburg,  including  Davis  Island  dam,  are 
practically  completed;  locks  and  dams  numbered  8,  11,  13,  18  and 
37  are  nearing  completion ;  land  for  locks  and  dams  numbered  7 
and  19  has  been  secured,  and  partial  appropriation  for  work  on  19 
has  been  made;  full  appropriation  ($1,200,000),  cash  and  contract, 
has  been  made  for  No.  26,  below  the  mouth  of  the  Great  Kanawha 
and  Gallipolis,  and  the  engineers  are  now  engaged  in  final  sur- 
veys to  fix  the  exact  location.  The  locks  and  dams  named,  below 
No.  6,  were  provided  for  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  they  were  con- 
sidered of  first  importance.  With  the  completion  of  No.  t,"/  (about 
ten  miles  below  Cincinnati)  a  harbor  nearly  thirty  miles  in  length 
will  be  made,  which  will  be  of  supreme  importance  to  Cincinnati 
and  her  large  interests.  AMien  No.  26  is  completed  the  product 
of  the  coal  fields  of  the  Kanawha  \'alley  may  be  transported  to  the 
markets  of  the  Ohio  ^^allcy  regularly  by  lowering  the  wickets  on 
the  Kanawha  River  and  those  of  Nos.  26  and  T^y,  thus  flushing 
the  river  and  giving  the  required  water. 

By  direction  of  Congress  the  survey  of  the  Ohio  was  com- 
pleted from  the  mouth  of  the  Big  Miami  to  Cairo  by  a  board  of 
United  States  engineers  composed  of  Lieutenant-Colonels  Lock- 
wood,  Sears  and  Ruffner.  and  Majors  Zinn  and  Sibert.  Statistics 
of  the  tonnage  of  the  Ohio  were  collected  and  tabulated  at  the 
request  of  the  board,  by  the  Ohio  \^alley  Improvement  Association. 


144  ^^*'''  ^■^'^'^'^^^  of  ^^^'^  American  Academy 

The  report  of  this  board  was  filed  in  the  War  Department  on  the 
4th  of  January,  1907,  and  was  reterrcd  to  the  board  of  engineers 
for  rivers  and  harbors,  commonly  known  as  the  board  of  review. 
The  report  will  no  doubt  be  presented  to  Congress  at  its  approach- 
ing session. 

It  is  probable  that  the  greatest  work  accomplished  by  the  Ohio 
Valley  Improvement  Association  was  in  its  invitation  to  the  Com- 
mittee on  Rivers  and  Harbors  of  the  House  of  Representatives  to 
make  a  tour  of  the  Ohio  from  Pittsburg  to  Cairo  on  the  steamer 
Queen  City,  commanded  by  Captain  J.  F.  Ellison,  secretary  of  the 
association  and  also  secretary  of  the  National  Rivers  and  Harbors 
Congress.     The  trip  was  made  in  daylight,  and  covered  ten  days. 
That  the  tour  was  a  source  of  the  most  valuable  information  to 
the  committee  is  undoubted,  and  the  fact  was  fully  and  most  cor- 
dially conceded  by  all  of  the  number.     That  it  was  productive  of 
great  good  to  the   work   in   which   the   association   is   engaged   is 
equally  undoubted.     The  committee  saw,  from  source  to  mouth,  a 
magnificent  river  1,000  miles  in  length,  with  steamers  not  only  pass- 
ing down  stream  laden  with  merchandise,  but  steamers  alone,  and 
with  barges  coming  from  local  ports  and  from  New  Orleans  and 
other  southern  points  loaded  with  sugar,  molasses,  cotton,  lumber 
or  material  for  pulp  mills — a  stream  on  which  coal  and  iron  and 
other  heavy  products  are  carried  at  the  phenomenally  low  rate  of 
one-third  of  a  mill  per  ton  per  mile;  a  stream   on  the  banks  of 
which,  from  Pittsburg  to  Cairo,  there  was  an  endless  panorama  of 
mining  and  manufacturing  operations ;  a  valley  than  which  none  is 
richer  in  agricultural  products  in  the  United  States.     They  saw  a 
stream  which,  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1906,  carried— 
according  to  official  reports— more  than  4,500,000  passengers  and 
more  than  15,000,000  tons  of  freight;  a  river  on  whose  waters,  not 
always  navigable  in  their  unimproved  state,  the  steamer  Sprague, 
the  leviathan  of  w^estern  waters,  took  in  safety  from  Pittsburg  to 
Cairo,  and  from  Cairo  to  New  Orleans,  in  one  tow  of  coal,  no  less 
than  70,000  tons — a  tow^  of  freight  which  would  require  not  less 
than   2,333  coal  cars,  making  a  train  fifteen  miles  in  length,  not 
including  the  locomotive  engines  required  to  draw  it.     They  saw  a 
river  which,  tnore  than  any  other  river  in  the  country,  has  demon- 
strated that  it  is  not  present  tonnage  carried   that  determines  its 
merits  or  its  standing  before  the  Committee  on  Rivers  and  Harbors 


The  Improvement  of  the  Ohio  River  145 

of  the   House,  but  that   it   is   the   tonnage-bearing   capacity   of   a 
stream  improved  that  determines  its  standing. 

The  benefits  that  have  come  with  the  completion  of  each  lock 
and  movable  dam  on  the  Ohio  accrue  to  every  mine  and  factory  in 
the  valley.  With  the  completion  of  the  nine-foot  stage  from  Pitts- 
burg to  Cairo,  the  valley  of  the  Ohio — the  very  heart  of  the  com- 
mercial and  industrial  life  of  the  country — would  not  depend  solely 
on  railroads  for  transporting  the  ores  from  the  mines  nor  on  the 
finished  product  from  the  factories  to  the  markets.  To-day  the 
merchant,  the  farmer,  the  manufacturer,  and  the  miner  find  the 
value  of  their  products  at  zero  too  often  because  of  inability  of  the 
railway  to  furnish  him  transportation  to  a  market — for  the  value  of 
the  article  of  commerce  is  measured  by  its  ability  to  reach  a  market. 
With  the  Ohio  permanently  improved,  merchant  and  manufacturer, 
miner  and  farmer,  would  have  ready  access  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year  to  a  market,  and  the  consumer  would  profit  none  the  less  than 
the  producer. 


MISSISSIPPI  IMPROVEMENTS  AND  TRAFFIC 
PROSPECTS. 


By  R.  B.  Way,  Ph.D., 
Assistant  Professor  of  Political  Science  and  History,   Beloit  College, 

Beloit,  Wis. 


The  execution  of  the  proposed  improvements  and  extensions 
of  the  waterways  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  will  necessitate  event- 
ually the  expenditure  of  hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars.  To  de- 
termine whether  such  an  expenditure  will  be  warranted,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  examine  the  problems  involved  in  the  imdertakings,  the 
cost  of  the  improvements  and  their  values  as  determined  from  an 
estimate  of  the  lands  reclaimed,  freight  rates  saved  and  traffic 
secured. 

Problems  of  River  Regulation 

In  presenting  the  results  of  such  an  inquiry,  a  general  dis- 
cussion of  the  present  obstacles  to  the  free  navigation  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  the  agencies  which  will  assist  in  the  improvement  of 
the  river,  irrespective  of  the  great  projects  now  proposed,  will  pre- 
cede the  detailed  study  of  the  particular  sections  of  the  river. 

Thus  far,  the  frequent  shifting  of  its  channels,  the  sappings 
of  its  banks,  the  building  of  bars,  the  setting  of  snags  and  sawyers, 
the  destruction  of  landings  by  the  changing  elevations  of  the  water, 
and  the  interference  of  levees,  bridges  and  other  engineering  works, 
have  checked  all  efforts  to  increase  the  river  traffic  to  meet  the 
general  industrial  growth  of  the  Mississippi  \"alley. 

Each  vear  an  average  of  four  hundred  million  tons  of  sedi- 
ment is  carried  down  to  the  gulf,  occasioning  great  difficulties 
in  controlling  the  stream.  Bars  are  formed  by  the  silt ;  and,  by 
the  deposition  of  the  coarser  debris,  the  river's  course  is  dammed. 
The  floating  sediment  scours  the  channel  and  wears  away  the 
obstructing  banks  with  any  acceleration  in  the  current  of  the 
stream.  As  much  of  this  sediment  comes  from  the  headwaters 
of  each  of  the  tributaries  of  the  "Mississippi,  the  main  river  can 
never  be   cleared   until   adequate   provision   is   made   for   clearing 

(146) 


Mississippi  Improvements  and  Traffic  Prospects  147 

these  tributaries.  The  sediment-free  streams  can  then  be  made 
tractable  for  navigation  and  their  power  convertible  for  industrial 
purposes. 

In  the  effort  to  clear  the  Mississippi  the  establishment  of  forest 
reserves  and  national  parks  will  also  be  helpful.  The  forests,  by 
conserving  the  rainfall,  will  check  the  tendency  of  the  mountain 
streams  to  gather  in  torrents  and  carry  into  the  headwaters  of 
the  tributaries  vast  quantities  of  sediment.  Even  the  fringe  of 
willows  or  beds  of  cottonwoods  along  each  smaller  stream  will 
aid   much   if  the   local   authorities   will   encourage   their   retention. 

The  municipal  system  of  waterworks  can  be  made,  to  a  greater 
extent,  a  part  of  the  general  plan  for  clearing  the  river  and  improv- 
ing the  navigation.  Each  waterworks  reservoir  is  a  settling  basin 
and  the  control  of  the  catchment  area  checks  soil  wash  and  min- 
imizes the  amount  of  sediment  carried  by  the  stream.  A  definite 
and  comprehensive  system  of  co-operation  between  the  national 
and  municipal  governments  in  the  furtherance  of  every  system 
of  waterworks  is  yet  to  be  established. 

As  more  people  see  how  irrigation  incidentally  reduces  storm- 
floods  and  thaw  freshets  and  retains  much  of  the  contained  sedi- 
ments, there  will  be  a  fuller  appreciation  of  the  fact  that  the 
irrigating  and  reclamation  of  the  western  lands  will  do  much 
in  bringing  under  control  portions  of  the  Mississippi  river  sys- 
tem. The  above  shows  how  important  it  is  even  from  the  stand- 
point of  navigation,  to  adopt,  as  suggested  by  President  Roosevelt 
in  his  recent  Memphis  speech,  "a  single  comprehensive  scheme 
for  meeting  all  the  demands  so  far  as  possible  at  the  same  time 
and  by  the  same  means." 

In  the  endeavor  to  protect  the  flood  plains  the  close  connection 
which  the  improvement  of  one  section  of  the  river  bears  to  that 
of  another  is  very  evident.  The  lower  ]\Iississippi  during-  the 
period  of  its  early  settlement  occasionally  shifted  its  channel  and, 
running  over  broad  bottom  lands,  fixed  in  time  its  position  by 
building  natural  levees  of  silt.  Then  again  it  broke  through  these 
barriers. 

With  the  increase  in  population  in  the  upper  basin  of  the  river 
and  the  reckless  practice  pursued  of  destroying  the  belts  of  tim- 
berlands  along  the  rivers  and  running  the  furrows  down  slope 
regardless   of   soil   wash,   the  quantity  of   sediment   in   the   lower 


148  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

river  was  augmented,  the  clogging  of  the  channels  was  hastened, 
and  the  devastation  by  floods  increased.  In  order,  to  protect  the 
millions  of  fertile  acres  of  cane,  corn  and  cotton  the  levee  system 
was  inaugurated.  Upon  this  millions  have  been  spent  until  now,. 
in  1907,  about  75  per  cent  of  the  banks  of  the  river  south  of  Cape 
Girardeau  are  leveed.^ 

The  ]\Iississippi  River  Commission,  in  their  report  of  1006, 
recommended  the  completion  of  the  levee  system.  There  are,  how- 
ever, some  general  difficulties  involved  in  the  work.  As  the  waters 
of  the  river  are 'confined  within  narrower  limits,  a  vertical  expan- 
sion of  the  wate.r  must  occur.  Therefore  the  levees  must  always 
exceed  in  height  by  two  to  four  feet  the  highest  known  elevations 
of  the  waters.  It  is  always  possible  that  the  next  flood  may  be 
higher  than  any  previous  one.  Some  engineers  tell  us  that  if  the 
river  be  contracted  between  rigid  walls,  the  velocity  of  the  stream 
will  be  so  increased  that  up-stream  navigation  will  be  impossible 
and  down-stream  dangerous."  Others  maintain  that  the  sand  bars 
and  the  sinuosity  of  the  river  are  nature's  provision  against  the 
violence  of  the  stream. 

Improvement  Antlwrized  in  River  and  Harbor  Bill,  iQoy 

Three  lines  of  procedure  for  the  improvement  of  the  Missis- 
sippi are  designated  in  the  recently  passed  River  and  Harbor  Bill:^ 

(i)  Appropriations  were  voted  for  the  general  improvements 
of  the  river,  for  the  extension  of  the  levee  system  and  the  improve- 
ment of  navigation.  This  includes  the  maintenance  of  a  naviga- 
ble channel  for  at  least  200  feet  in  width  and  9  feet  in  depth  from 
Cairo  to  the  gulf. 

(2)  Appropriations  for  the  improvement  of  the  river  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Ohio  to  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri. 

(3)  The  appointment  of  a  board  to  report  on  the  practica- 
bility and  desirability  of  constructing  a  navigable  channel  fourteen 
feet  deep  and  of  suitable  width  from  St.  Louis  to  the  gulf  either 
by  the  improvement  of  the  river  or  by  a  canal  or  canals  for  a  part 
of  the  route. 

For  study  the  river  may  be  divided  into  three  sections:    (i) 

iChief  of  Ensinoers'   Roport.   inOG,  Tf.   IT.   2485,  states  that  nearly  4,000  miles 
of  levees  had  been  built  up  to  May  1,  1006. 
^ToiiK.   Records,   p.   210,8. 
«H.    R.    Bill   24,001. 


Mississippi  Iniproz'ciuciits  and  Traffic  Prospects  149 

The  lower  Mississippi  northward  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio;  (2) 
The  middle  section,  from  Cairo  to  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri;*  (3) 
The  upper  Mississippi,  north  of  the  Missouri. 

The  Lozu'er  Mississippi — The  Levees 

In  the  lower  Mississippi  navigation  is  impeded  by  shifting 
channels,  destruction  of  the  banks  and  the  deposition  of  snags  and 
sediments.  The  results  obtained  from  dredging  have  fully  estab- 
lished the  fact  that  it  is  entirely  feasible  to  maintain  a  channel 
9  feet  in  depth  and  at  least  250  feet  wide  at  all  stages  by  means 
of  a  suitable  equipment  of  dredges.  Success,  however,  rests  upon 
an  uninterrupted  prosecution  of  the  work  which  can  only  be 
secured  by  the  government's  continually  appropriating  the  neces- 
sary funds.  To  secure  the  confidence  of  the  capitalist  who  must 
provide  the  money  for  building  the  river  craft  and  the  steamboat 
man  who  navigates,  an  adequate  channel  must  be  maintained  for  a 
period  of  years. 

In  the  reclamation  of  the  valuable  lowlands  much  levee  work 
remains  to  be  done,  as  was  demonstrated  by  the  flood  of  1903. 
One-fourth  of  the  Yazoo  basin  was  under  water,  one-half  of  the 
City  of  Greenville,  Mississippi,  inundated,  six  thousand  people 
driven  from  their  homes  and  traffic  suspended  on  the  Yazoo  and 
Mississippi  Valley  Railroad  for  twenty  days,  and  on  the  Riverside 
Division  for  forty.^  As  the  levee  grows  in  volume,  the  loss  per 
mile  from  the  carrying  away  of  its  banks  becomes  more  and  more 
serious  and,  if  the  same  rate  of  destruction  continues,*^  the  time  will 
come  when  the  annual  revenues  will  not  be  sufficient  to  build  new 
levees  to  replace  those  that  cave  in.  It  will,  therefore,  be  necessary 
to  continue  the  appropriations  at  an  increased  ratio  for  a  number 
of  years.  The  caving  of  the  levee  banks  occurs  in  the  bends,  and  the 
action  takes  place  at  intervals.  The  damage  can  be  stopped  only 
by  revetment  or  by  building  a  new  levee  on  ground  further  from 
the  river.  The  first  method  is  so  expensive  that  it  is  not  favored  by 
the  commission  except  in  a  few  cases :  when  the  levee  threatened 
is  so  situated  that  a  new  location  cannot  be  formed  except 
at    a    great    distance    from    the    river,    where    extremely    valuable 

^Twenty-eight  miles   nortli   of   St.   Lonis. 
^Miss.   River  Com.   Report.   1004,  p.   2.5. 

"Since  Dec,  1903,  17  per  cent  of  tlie  total  length  of  controlling  line  has  been 
abandoned.     Cong.  Records,  41,  Pt.  3,  2385. 


150  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

interests  would  be  sacrificed  by  the  changed  Hne,  where  there  is 
a  lake,  an  impassable  swamp  or  a  town  lying  immediately  behind 
the  present  levee  which  would  be  thrown  open  to  the  flow  by 
the  change." 

To  prevent  the  bends  being  cut  off  is  another  object  of  revet- 
ment. The  importance  of  this  phase  of  the  work  is  seen  in  the 
disastrous  effect  of  a  cut-off  where  the  bend  is,  say,  fifteen  miles 
around  and  one  mile  across.  As  the  fall  in  the  river  is  about 
six  inches  in  a  mile  we  would  have,  where  the  cut-off  is  made,  a 
fall  of  seven  and  one-half  feet  in  a  mile,  disturbing  the  existing 
conditions  for  forty  to  fifty  miles  above  and  below.  Experience 
has  shown  that  this  shortening  would  be  only  temporary  as  the 
river  would  begin  to  eat  in  the  offshore  and  in  a  very  few  years 
the  length  of  the  cut-off  would  be  reached.  This  makes  it  impera- 
tive that  both  shores  shall  be  protected. 

But  the  higher  levees,  required  for  the  confinement  of  the 
flood  discharges  from  Cairo  downward,  will  necessitate  the  ex- 
penditure of  an  amount  of  money  which  will  be  more  and  more 
beyond  the  ability  of  the  riparian  communities  to  bear.  Although 
it  now  costs  about  $200,000  a  mile  for  revetment  work,  it  is  esti- 
mated that  if  the  government  would  undertake  energetically,  on  a 
large  scale,  the  revetment  of  the  uncompleted  portions  of  the  five 
hundred  miles  of  caving  banks  from  Cairo  to  the  mouth  of  the  Red 
River,  it  would  cost  less  than  fifty  million  dollars.  This  completed, 
less  money  would  have  to  be  spent  in  dredging. 

There  is  yet  much  work  to  be  done  in  the  New  Orleans 
Harbor.  Here  an  ever-present  danger  of  a  sudden  collapse  in 
certain  portions  exists.  Ample  funds  must  be  provided  for  the 
extension  and  completion  of  the  revetment. 

TJie  Middle  Section   of  the  River 

For  the  middle  section  of  the  Mississippi  River,  the  plan  of 
1881  arranged  for  the  confinement  of  the  flow  to  a  single  channel, 
having  approximately  a  width  of  2.500  feet  below  St.  Louis.  The 
secondary  channels  were  to  be  closed  and  new  banks  built  out  where 
the  natural  width  was  excessive.  For  this  purpose  permeable 
dikes  or  hurdles  of  piling  were  to  be  used  to  collect  and  hold  the 
solid  matter  that  is  carried  in  suspension  or  rolled  on  the  bottom 

^CoDff.    Records.   41.   rt.   3,    2385. 


Mississippi  hnprovcmcnts  and  Traffic  Prospects  151 

of  the  river.^  In  1896  the  plan  was  modified  by  substituting  dredg- 
ing as  the  method  of  clearing  the  channel,  and  by  1903  dredging 
plants   were   established.^ 

In  the  River  and  Harbor  Bill,  as  passed,  only  $250,000  was 
voted  for  the  work  in  this  section  of  the  river.  Mayor  Burr  and 
others  state  that  it  will  take  all  of  that  amount  to  keep  the  dredges 
going  with  nothing  left  for  levee  or  revetment  work.^''  The  sum  of 
$650,000,  as  recommended  by  General  Mackenzie,  Chief  of  Engi- 
neers, as  the  amount  to  be  expended  for  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30,  1908,  was  plead  for  in  both  houses  of  congress,  but  was 
rejected  by  the  Committee  on  Rivers  and  Harbors  of  the  lower 
House. 

The  objections  to  the  larger  appropriations  were  stated  by  Chair- 
man Burton^^  of  the  House  Committee  on  Rivers  and  Harbors.  They 
were:    (i)    More  money  had  been  spent  on  the  Mississippi  River 
within  the  last  twenty  years  per  annum  than  is  expended  by  Ger- 
many on  the  Rhine,  whose  traffic  is  thirty  to  forty  million  tons  a  year, 
while   the    total    traffic   of   the   middle    section    of    the    Mississippi 
dropped  from  1,260,000  tons  to  440,000  tons  in  the  last  ten  years. 
(2)  Extensive  plans  of  improvements  were  adopted  in  1881  at  an 
estimated    cost    of    $16,000,000.     This    proved    inefifectual.     Aftei^ 
twenty-three  years  nearly  eleven  millions  had  been  expended,  when 
the  estimate  for  the  completion  of  the  work  was  given  as  twenty  mil- 
lions, four  millions  more  than  the  original  estimate.     (3)  For  nearly 
three  years  there  have  been  eight  feet  of  water,  the  amount  now 
sought,    yet    traffic    is    diminishing.     For    the    year    1904    and    the 
three  years  previous  $650,000  a  year  was  provided.     (4)    Freight 
rate   from   St.  Louis   to  New  Orleans  on  grain  is  only  one-third 
more  per  ton  mile  to-day  than  it  is  from  Duluth  to  Buffalo.     With 
this   low   rate   practically   no   grain   is   shipped   from   St.   Louis  to 
New  Orleans.^-      (5)   Until  it  was  determined  whether  or  not  the 
proposed  deep-water  channel  from  Chicago  to  the  gulf  necessitated 
canalization  along  the  middle  section  of  the  river,  it  was  unwise 
to  expend  more  money  for  the  section.^' 

^Engineer's  Report,  1006,  Pt.  I,  462. 

^Engineer's  Report,   1904,  2144,  et  seq. 

^oCong.   Records.   41,   Pt.    ,5,   409.5. 

"Tliey  were  st.nted  in  tlie  House,  reiterated  in  the  conference  with  the  Senate 
Committee  and  re-stated  before  the  Senate  by  Senator  Frye  Feb.  27,  1907.  See  Cong. 
Rec.  41.  rt.   5.  4088. 

iVnng.   Records,  41,   2429    (Feb.    11.   1907). 

"Zfttrf. 


152  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

Lakes  to  Gulf  IVatcrzcay 

Closely  associated  with  the  improvement  of  the  middle  section 
are  the  projects  for  the  fourteen-foot  deep-water  channels  from 
Chicago  to  St.  Louis  and  thence  to  the  gulf.  Chicago,  having 
completed  the  drainage  canal  with  a  view  to  its  navigation,  desires 
to  secure  its  utmost  efficiency  by  inducing  the  general  government 
to  complete  a  deep-water  channel  to  St.  Louis.  United  States 
surveyors  have  estimated  the  cost  of  a  fourteen-foot  waterway 
from  Lockport,  the  terminus  of  the  drainage  canal,  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Illinois  River  as  a  little  over  23^^  million  dollars.^*  The 
Illinois  law  providing  for  the  drainage  canal,  stated  that  when- 
ever the  United  States  Government  shall  improve  the  Des  Plaines 
and  Illinois  rivers,  making  them  capable  of  receiving  a  flow  of 
600,000  cubic  feet  per  minute  and  assume  all  damages  arising 
from  any  extra  flow  above  300,000  cubic  feet  per  minute,  the 
drainage  canal  shall  be  likew^ise  enlarged  and  turned  over  to  the 
general  government  for  navigable  purposes. 

Certain  difficulties  are  to  be  noted  in  the  plan  for  the  general 
government's  undertaking  the  project.  At  a  recent  meeting  of 
the  Rivers  and  Harbors  Committee  at  Niagara  Falls,  both  the 
president  and  chief  engineer  of  the  sanitary  district  board  stated 
that  to  carry  oflf  the  sewerage  of  Chicago,  a  flow  of  840,000  cubic 
feet  per  minute  would  be  required.^^  In  1905-06,  when  the  flow 
from  the  drainage  canal  was  but  250,000  cubic  feet  per  minute, 
224  lawsuits  were  brought  against  the  trustees  of  the  sanitary 
district  of  Chicago  and  damages  claimed  amounting  to  $4,409,180. 
What  damages  the  government  will  have  to  assume  when  the 
necessary  840,000  feet  of  water  is  turned  in,  is  not  known. ^^ 

How  the  level  of  the  Great  Lakes  will  be  affected  by  this 
flow,  is  another  problem.  The  enormous  expense  then  of  dredg- 
ing the  lakes  can  only  be  avoided  and  their  present  level  main- 
tained, by  placing  dams  and  other  controlling  works  across  the 
Detroit  and  Niagara  rivers.  This  can  be  done  only  at  great  ex- 
pense and  after  an  international  agreement. 

Important  water  rights  have  been  developed  along  the  route 

"Report  upon  Survey  of  Des  Tlaines  and  Illinoif?  Rivers,  inn.",  p.  10.  House 
Doc.   203.   Fifty-ninth   Cong.,  First  Session. 

"Cong.   IJec,  41,  p.   2200. 

lOReport  upon  Survey  of  Dos  Tlaines  and  Illinois  Rivers,  1005.  p.  12.  See 
also  Cong.  Rec.  41,  p.  2200. 


Alississippi  Improvements  and  Traffie  Prospects  153 

of  the  proposed  deep-water  channel  by  private  corporations.  In 
furthering  the  plans  for  the  improvement  of  the  rivers  for  naviga- 
tion, it  is  necessary  to  cause  the  relinquishment  of  these  rights. 
The  State  of  Illinois  is  at  present  meeting  with  considerable  oppo- 
sition in  its  endeavor  to  remove  the  dams  which  obstruct  the  work 
upon  the  portion  of  the  deep-water  channel  in  which  the  state 
is  interested. 

The  deep-water  project  from  Chicago  to  the  Mississippi  will 
necessitate  the  enlargement  and  deepening  of  the  channel  from 
Grafton  to  St.  Louis,  or  else  the  building  of  a  lateral  canal  con- 
necting these  points.  Engineers  are  not  yet  agreed  as  to  the 
practicability  of  the  canalization  of  the  Mississippi.  The  Commit- 
tee on  Rivers  and  Harbors  was  undoubtedly  wise  in  holding 
up  the  work  to  await  the  development  of  other  projects  and  to 
give  the  engineers  time  to  study  the  problems  further  in  the  hope 
of  a  closer  approach  of  unity  in  the  recommendations. 

The  Reservoirs  of  the  Upper  River 

The  upper  Mississippi  has  certain  unique  projects.  The  prin- 
cipal one  is  the  construction  of  reservoirs  at  the  headwaters  of  the 
river,  between  Brainerd  and  Grand  Rapids,  Minnesota.  These 
are  planned  to  collect  the  surplus  water  from  precipitation  of  the 
winter,  spring  and  early  summer  to  be  systematically  released 
during  the  navigable  season  so  as  to  benefit  the  navigation  of  the 
river  below. 

A  present  difficulty  in  the  efficient  management  of  the  reser- 
voir svstem,  as  now^  constructed,  is  the  great  distance  of  the 
reservoirs  from  the  head  of  navigation  at  St.  Paul.  Trouble  arises 
in  getting  the  water  dow^n  to  St.  Paul  in  time  to  make  good  a 
sudden  decrease  in  the  natural  flow  at  that  point.  To  remedy  this, 
use  is  made  of  the  small  available  supplies  in  Sandy  Lake  and 
Pine  River.  To  secure  a  much  larger  supply,  which  is  needed, 
it  is  proposed  to  build  other  reservoirs  w^hich  will  deliver  to  St. 
Paul  several  billion  more  cubic  feet  of  water  from  a  point  103 
miles  nearer.^^ 

The  reservoirs  affect  seven  different  interests  which  often 
conflict;  the  steamboat  navigation  below  and  above  St.  Paul,  log- 
ging, mills  at  and  above  Minneapolis,  riparian  owners  on  the  river 

"Engineer's  Report,  lOOG,  rt.  II,  p.  1438. 


154  The  Annals  of  the  American  Aeadeiny 

and  those  on  the  reservoirs.  Each  is  unquestionably  better  off  with 
than  without  the  reservoirs;  in  fact  the  supply  and  regulation  of 
water  secured  by  the  system  greatly  benefit  the  434  miles  of  navi- 
gable river  between  Minneapolis  and  Cass  Lake. 

The  different  interests,  affected  by  the  reservoir  system  self- 
ishly desire  it  to  be  managed  exclusively  for  their  own  benefit. 
Owing  to  this  fact  the  consideration  and  settlement  of  the  various 
complaints  against  the  system  constitute  at  present  a  problem  in  the 
improvement  of  the  upper  Mississippi.  These  complaints  came 
from  three  sources:  (i)  Riparian  interests  above  the  dam;  (2)  the 
flooded  district  in  the  vicinity  of  Aitkin,  Minnesota;  (3)  the  milling 
interest  at  Grand  Rapids,  Minnesota. 

Of  the  first,  it  may  be  said  that  the  reservoir  system  does 
flood  the  lands,  and  the  fluctuation  in  the  water  surface  thus  occa- 
sioned results  in  damage.  Consequently,  the  government  must 
acquire  the  land  overflowed,  purchase  the  right  to  overflow  it,  or 
pay  damages  for  property  destroyed.  In  acquiring  the  right  to 
overflow  the  land,  the  government  is  performing  its  full  duty  in 
the  matter. 

In  extending  and  completing  the  reservoir  system,  the  govern- 
ment came  into  dispute  with  the  Indians  in  the  Leach  Lake  Reser- 
vations. These  Indians  have  resorted  to  growing  wild  rice  and 
hay  around  the  reservoirs.  Although  the  government  paid  them 
$150,000^^  for  the  right  to  overflow  their  land,  a  fair  compensation, 
they,  naturally  improvident,  continue  to  depend  on  additional  gov- 
ernment aid. 

Besides  the  complaints  of  the  Indians,  dissatisfaction  has  arisen 
among  those  financially  interested  in  the  lumber  company  at  Cass 
Lake.  The  J.  Neils  Lumber  Company,  organized  after  the  United 
States  Government  had  secured  the  flowage  rights  on  the  lands 
occupied  by  the  company's  mills,  feel  entitled  to  damages  by  the 
overflow  because  they  were  not  notified  of  the  government's  right 
when  they  bought  the  land.  Though  complaints  come  to  the 
engineering  board  from  other  localities,  the  government  seems 
to  be  adjusting  equitably  every  legitimate  outstanding  claim. 

A  general  demand  to  abandon  the  reservoir  system  comes  from 
those  impressed  by  the  loss  occasioned  by  the  withdrawal  of  the 
land  from  settlement  and  the  permanent  obstacle  to  its  development. 

"Act  Aug.   19,   1900. 


Mississippi  Improvements  and  TrafHc  Prospects  155 

However,  the  benefits  to  the  various  interests  below  the  dam  are 
so  great  that,  even  if  the  flowage  lands  above  were  vacated  by  the 
government,  the  advantages  to  the  community  at  large  could  never 
be  so  important  as  those  secured  by  the  reservoirs. ^^ 

A  few  words  regarding  the  situation  at  Aitkin,  Minnesota, 
will  aid  in  understanding  the  problems  met  in  the  improvement 
of  the  river  at  that  point.  Owing  to  the  low  banks,  flat  slope  and 
excessive  curvature  of  the  Mississippi  in  this  section  a  very  fertile 
area  of  100,000  acres  is  subject  to  overflow.  The  flood  of  1905 
caused  an  actual  damage  of  $50,000  and  such  dire  indirect  losses 
that  the  government  of  Minnesota  called  for  relief  contributions. 
A  number  of  farms  were  abandoned  and  the  crops  for  an  entire 
season  over  a  large  tract  of  country  were  destroyed.  The  people 
of  Aitkin,  rejecting  the  engineer  board's  statement  that  the  cause 
was  the  exceptional  rainfall,  firmly  believe  that  the  reservoir  system 
occasioned  the  disasters.  Hence  the  engineer  board  must  now  con- 
vince the  people-"  of  the  real  cause  and  make  all  possible  altera- 
tions in  the  system  to  appease  them. 

The  great  paper  industry  of  Grand  Rapids,  Minnesota,  with 
its  mills  about  two  and  one-half  miles  below  the  Pokegama  reservoir 
dam,  complain  of  insufficient  water  to  run  during  the  non-naviga- 
tion seasons.  It  appears  that  the  company  located  its  mills  and 
constructed  its  mill  wheels  with  the  view  of  taking  advantage 
of  the  reservoir  system.  But  now  it  is  found  that  the  requirements 
for  navigation,  the  main  purpose  of  the  system,  do  not  always  co- 
incide with  those  of  the  mill.  The  whole  contention  of  the  paper 
company  amounts  to  this :  that  the  government  shall  abandon  the 
purposes  for  which  the  reservoirs  were  built  and  convert  them  into 
mill  ponds,  for  the  benefit  of  the  company.  In  this  clash  it  is  clearly 
shown  that  the  interests  above  the  dams  can  never  be  equally  as 
well  served  as  those  below.  The  lower  interests  are  much  more 
important  and  must  take  the  precedent.  However,  to  secure  the 
largest  amount  of  support  for  its  method  of  improving  the  upper 
river,  the  government  must  do  all  in  its  power  to  treat  the  paper 
industry  with  the  utmost  liberality.  This  it  seems  to  be  doing, 
although  .at  present  obliged  to  reject  the  radical  demands  of  the 
Grand  Rapids  interests. 

'"See  Knpinper's   Report.    1006.   V\.   II.   14fi4-70. 

^See   Engineer's   Report,    1006,   Pt.    II,    1450-64   for  careful   ex.amination   of  the 
question. 


156  The  Aiiitals  of  the  American  Academy  • 

The  River  from  St.  Paid  to  St.  Louis 

From  St.  Paul  to  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri  River/ the  im- 
provements consist  of  the  removal  of  snags,  some  dredging  and  such 
special  harbor  and  levee  work  as  is  needed.  Originally  the  channel 
between  these  two  points  was  such  that  in  low  stages  the  larger  boats 
were  unable  to  proceed  farther  up  stream'  than  La  Crosse  or 
Winona.  The  present  project  for  the  improvement  of  this  section 
proposes  a  contraction  of  the  waterway  so  as  to  afford  a  channel 
of  sufficient  width  and  a  depth  of  four  and  one-half  feet  at  low 
water,  to  be  eventually  increased  to  six'  feet  by  further  contraction. 
For  the  last  few"  years  such  a  channel  has  been  secured.  Ex- 
penditures are  still  demanded  in  order  to  obtain  an  increased  depth 
at  certain  points  and  make  the  necessary  repairs  to  dams  and  shore 
protections. 

It  has  now  become  the  fixed  policy  of  the  Committee  on 
Rivers  and  Harbors  to  recommend  no -appropriations  for  the  im- 
provement of  any  waterwa}'  until  the  tonnage  of  the  section  shows 
sufficient  magnitude.  Furthermore,  there  must  exist  reasonable 
grounds  for  expecting  that  such  an  amount  of  the  tonnage  will 
follow  the  waterway  as  to  make  the  business  returns  therefrom 
commensurate  with  the  expenditure  for  the  improvement. 

Water  Pon'cr — Upper  River 

Thus  far,  the  advantages  derived  above  St.  Paul  from  the 
reservoirs  have  been  largely  such  as  accrue  to  the  floating  of  logs."^ 
In  time  the  logging  interests  will  relinquish  the  river  to  navigation 
and  large  quantities  of  merchandise  will  be  transported  to  market 
from  the  upper  regions  which  are  not  reached  by  railroads.  With 
the  completion  of  the  locks  and  dams  now  being  built,  INIinneapolis 
will  become  practically  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  river. 

The  storage  capacity  of  the  five  reservoirs,  constructed  and 
maintained  by  the  government  at  a  cost  of  $1,250,000,  is  96  billion 
cubic  feet  of  water.  It  is  estimated  that  each  billion  cubic  feet 
is  at  present  worth  to  the  milling  interests  of  Minnesota  $13,000 
a  year  or  a  total  of  $1,218,000.  The  total  valuation  of  water- 
power  development  in  operation  on  the  Mississippi  between  Minne- 

'"Traffic  botwecn  Grand  IJapids  and  Rrainord.  Minn.,  in  100.").  was  400  tons  of 
freisht  and  1,.j86,000  tons  of  logs,  valued  at  $5,436,000.  Engineer's  Report.  1000. 
II,  1440. 


Mississipti  Improvements  and  Tramc  Prospects  I57 

apolis  and  the  reservoirs  is  now  about  $225,000.  Additional  powers 
worth  $900,000  are  being  built  about  Minneapolis  while  others 
amounting  to  nearly  $3,000,000  are  under  consideration  It  is 
maintained  that  the  reservoir  system  has  already  directly  benefited 
the  milling  interests  of  Minneapolis  to  the  extent  of  $500,000;  for, 
iiere  over  16,000,000  barrels  of  flour  are  produced  yearly  by  water 
power  at  less  than  one  cent  a  barrel,  while  by  steam  it  would  cost 
five  cents." 

River  Tramc  and  Rates  above  St.  Louis 
For  the  year  1905,  4,089,319  tons  of  freight  passed  between  St. 
Paul  and  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri  River.-  Up  to  June  30,  1906, 
the  government  had  spent  $11,673,35676  on  improving  this  portion 
of  the  river,  and  $660,000  for  maintaining  the  improvements.- 
At  first  sight  the  expense  might  appear  entirely  out  of  proportion 
to  the  traffic,  but,  by  the  great  saving  in  freight  rates,  the  expendi- 
ture was  well  made.  _ 

In  1905  the  railroads  on  both  banks  of  the  river  from  bt. 
Louis  to  St.'Paul  charged  50  per  cent  more  than  the  steamboats; 
while  the  railroad  rate  to  an  inland  point,  having  no  water  compe- 
tition, but  about  the  same  distance  from  St.  Louis,  was  200  per  cent 
higher '-'  There  can  no  longer  be  any  doubt  that  water  rates  have  a 
controlling  influence  upon  railroad  rates.  Abundant  proot  of  this 
is  given  in  the  table  on  page  158.-" 

It  is  difficult  to  overestimate  the  vast  possibilities  for  manufac- 
turing industries  in  the  upper  Mississippi  A'alley.  Wisconsin  alone 
with  its  1.400  lakes  and  rivers  represents  immense  potential  power. 
This  power,  conserved  and  increased,  will  vastly  augment  the 
amount  of  manufactured  merchandise  which  must  seek  exportation. 
One  may  reasonablv  doubt  the  assertion  of  Governor  Van 
Sant  of  Minnesota,  made  in  1904.  to  the  effect  that  with  a  six- 
foot  stage  in  low  water,  practically  all  the  flour  for  export  in  Minne- 
apolis will  find  an  outlet  down  the  Mississippi  to  the  gulf."  The 
average  freight  rate  on  wheat  from  New  Orleans  to  Liverpool  for 


s^Engineer's  Report,   1906,   II,   1470. 
23/6i(7.  I,  465. 
">Ihkl. 
■^'Ihid.   466. 


^4'eport  of  the  Tapper  Mississippi  River  Association,  1005,  p.  167.     See  similar 
^"''Vp^ro^Ss'oflTppe.  Mississippi  River  Improven.ent  Association,  1904,  p.  49. 


158 


The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 


Freight  Rates  Showing  Comparative  Basis   Between   Points   Having  Water  Compe- 
tition AND  Inland  Points  Which  do  not  Obtain  the  Benefit  op  Water  Rates. 


From 


St.  Louis  . . 
St.  Louis  .  . 
St.  Louis  . . 

St.  Louis  .  . 
St.  Louis  .  . 
St.  Louis  .  . 

St.  Louis  .  . 
St.  Louis  . . 
St.  Louis  . . 

St.  Louis  . . 
St.  Louis  .  . 
St.  Louis  . . 

St.  Louis  . . 
St.  Louis  . . 
Quincy,  111., 

St.  Louis  .  . 
St.  Louis  .  . 

St.  Louis  . . 
St.  Louis  .  . 

St.  Louis  . . 
St.  Louis  . 

St.  Louis  .  , 
St.  Louis  . 

New  York 
Chicago  .  . 
Chicago  .  . 

New  York 


To 


St.  Paul,  Minn 

St.  Paul,  Minn 

Oklahoma  City,  O.  T 


Dubuque,  Iowa. 
I  Dubuque,  __  Iowa . 
Topeka,  Kas..  .  . 


Quincy,   111.  . 
Quincy,   111.  . 

Moberly,  Mo. 


Hannibal,  Mo. 
Hannibal,  Mo. 
Mexico,  Mo..  . 


Miles. 


Burlington,  Iowa. 
Burlington,  Iowa. 
Kansas  City,  Mo. 


Peoria,   111 

Poplar  Bluff,  Mo . 


Cape  Girardeau,  Mo. 
Salem,  Mo 


Memphis,  Tenn 

Hickory  Valley,  Tenn . 


New  Orleans,  La. 
Terrell,  Texas..  . . 


573 
729 
543 

340 
439 
347 

140 
161 


120 
141 
no 

214 
249 
226 

165 
166 

131 
127 

305 
302 

705 
669 


Route. 


Chicago !     913 

New  Orleans j     923 

Kansas  City 458 


Chicago 
Rail). 


(Lake     and 


Rail 
Boat 
Rail 

Rail 
Boat 
Rail 

Rail 
Boat 
Rail 

Rail 
Boat 
Rail 

Rail 
Boat 
Rail 

Rail 
Rail 

Rail 
Rail 

Rail 
Rail 

Rail 
Rail 

Rail 
Rail 
Rail 


$0.63         j$.OS2; 

.40  .34 

1.30  1.09 


•45 
■  33 
.89 


.44 

.33 
.60 


.46 

.65 
.96 

.90 
1-37 

-75 

1. 10 

.80 


•  37 
.26 
.69 

.27 
.22 

•  39 

.25 
.18 
•34M 

•  35 
.26 
•45 


•  75 
1. 21 

.65 
.00 
.65 


1O.42 
•  27 
•97 

.29 

.20 
•54 

.21 
.17 


.14 
.26 

.26 
.20 
.35 

.16 
•36 

•15 
•32 

•45 
.67 

.65 
1.04 


io.26 
.17 
.84 

•  23 

•  IS 
.42 

•  15 

.12 


■  13M 

.27 


•  35 
.55 

•  50 
.96 

•  35 
.58 

•  32 


I0.2I 
•14 
.67 

.iS 
.10 

•32 


.o3 
.18 


.07 
.16 


.I2> 
.23 

.30 

.45 

.40 

.75 

.25 

•  47 

•  27 


the  years  1899-03,  inclusive,  was  6.55  cents  per  bushel,  while  from 
New  York  it  was  only  3.97  cents.-^  In  1905  the  rate  for  flour  from 
New  Orleans  to  Liverpool  was  15  cents  per  hundred  pounds,  while 
from  New  York  it  was  5.63  cents. -^ 

The  grain  and  flour  required  in  the  internal  trade  of  the  Missis- 
sippi would  seek  the  improved  waterway.  In  addition  there  would 
be  an  up-stream  traffic  in  lumber,  sugar,  molasses,  rice  and  imports 
from  Asia  and  South  America.  The  hardwood  lumber  in  such 
demand  in  the  furniture  factories  in  the  Middle  West  could  be 
transported  on  the  river. 

The  claim  that  coal  will  be  brought  down  the  Ohio  and  up 
the  Mississippi  can  be  believed ;  that  it  will  be  carried  clear  to  St. 

ssDiffest   of  Ilearinps   on   Regnilation   of   Uiiilway   Rates,    Senate   Doc.    No.    244. 
Fifty-ninth   Congress,   First    Session,  p.   408,  403. 
»Ibid,  408,  501. 


Mississippi  Improvements  and   Traffic  Prospects  159 

Paul  and  Minneapolis,  may  be  doubted.  A  greater  amount  of  this 
coal  could  reach  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota  towns  by  the  improved 
waterways.  The  problem  of  coal  transportation  is  always  com- 
plicated by  the  fact  that  railroads  will  often  carry  coal  to  the 
distant  Northwest  at  a  great  sacrifice  in  order  to  secure  a  return 
cargo.  At  present  it  is  hauled  from  Ashtabula,  Ohio,  to  Duluth 
by  water  at  the  rate  of  thirty-five  cents  a  ton  so  as  to  secure  a 
return  cargo  for  the  iron  ore  vessels. 

In  spite  of  all  the  statistics  of  the  traffic  upon  the  upper  Mis- 
sissippi, no  great  amount  of  actual  commerce  is  shown.  As  yet 
this  section  of  the  river  does  not  have  the  amount  naturally  be- 
longing to  it.  To  some  extent  this  is  due  to  the  uncertainty  of  its 
navigation,  making  it  impossible  to  induce  capital  to  build  the 
necessary  steam  crafts.  Commerce  did  not  come  to  the  railroads 
until  they  were  completed,  and  it  will  not  come  to  the  river  until 
the  improvements  are  made. 

Traffic   Below  St.    Louis 

The  tables  on  page  160  give  the  statistics  regarding  the  traffic 
on  the  middle  and  lower  section  of  the  river : 

For  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1904,  the  three  great  rail- 
roads between  Chicago  and  St.  Louis  transported  449,115  tons  of 
freight  to  St.  Louis  and  returned  with  633,182  tons,  making  a 
total  of  1,082,297  tons  in  both  directions.^"  Though  far  short  of 
the  amount  moved  in  1906.  this  indicates,  to  some  extent,  what  a 
share  the  projected  deep  waterway  to  St.  Louis  might  have  in  the 
traffic.  The  meats,  cereals,  hardy  fruits,  manufactured  merchan- 
dise made  from  iron  and  steel,  and  the  furniture  of  the  Middle 
West  will  seek  the  new  route  in  reaching  the  southern  states.  In 
return  the  tobacco,  rice,  nuts,  and  lumber  will  be  sent  to  the  north. 
All  non-perishable  goods  of  small  money  value  in  proportion  to  their 
weight  will  go  by  water  rather  than  by  rail.  Then.  too.  the  water- 
way can  carry  the  raw  materials  for  building  and  manufacturing 
purposes  which  a  more  costly  means  of  conveying  would  leave 
untouched. 

With  the  completion  of  the  deep  waterway  from  the  lakes 
to  the  gulf,  the  Lake  Michigan  traffic  would  have  a  route  to  the 

3"EnKineer's  Report  of  Survey  of  Des  Plaines  and  Illinois  Rivers.     Ilouse  Doc. 
2,  63,   Fifty-Ninth  ConRress.   First   Session    (1905-06),   1.5. 


i6o 


The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 


COMMERCIAL  STATISTICS  FOR  CALENDAR  YEAR   1905." 
[Report  of  the  Chief  of  Engineers,   U.  S.  Army.] 
TABLE  I. 


Number 
of  pas- 
sengers. 

Receipts  and  Shipments,  in  Tons. 

ToNMAGE  Between — 

Grain 
and  its 
pro- 
ducts. 

Cotton. 

Cotton 
seed  and 
its  pro- 
ducts. 

Live 

stock. 

Coal  and 

coke. 

Lumber. 

St.  Louis  and  Cairo 

Cairo  and  Memphis 

-Memphis  and  Vicksburg. 
Vicksburg  and   New  Or- 

61,232 

41,696 

114.179 

84.255 

50,441 
51.123 
47,960 

26,881 

1,991 

9.573 

66,556 

25,349 

912 
11,069 
64,699 

39,554 

21,048 

200 

4.091 

3.945 

131.756       21,143 
1,328,930;    242,076 
1,097.758     128,697 

1,080,075       33.203 

Receipts  and  Shipments,  in  Tons. 

Tonnage  Between — 

Logs. 

Iron, 

steel 

and 

metals. 

Groceries 
and    pro- 
visions. 

Stone, 

sand  and 

gravel. 

Miscella- 
nous  and 
unclassi- 
fied. 

Total. 

101,111 

486,051 
334,499 
233.38^ 

135 
55,153 
16,409 
24,062 

18,958 

4,844 

30,471 

86,833 

5,800 

10,336 

526,852 

69,526 

43.550 

*45.354 

1382,932 

417,021 

Cairo  and  Memphis    

Memphis  and  Vicksbur'? 

Vicksburg  and   New  Orleans. 

2,238,363 
1.S55.830 
2,462,974 

•Includes  4,742  tons  of  oil. 


t  Includes  259,296  tons  of  oil. 

Note. — Each  stretch  is  treatad  as  a  separate  river,  and  tonnage  carried  between  ports 
on  different  stretches  will  appear  in  the  statistics  of  all  intervening  stretches.  Consequently 
the  sum  of  the  tonnage  carried  in  the  four  stretches  does  not  represent  the  total  traffic  on 
the  river  as  a  whole. 

TABLE  II. — Receipts  and  Shipments  at  Principal  Ports. 


Passen- 
gers   car- 
ried in 
and  out 
of  port. 

Receipts  and  Shipments,  in  Tons. 

Ports. 

Grain 

and  its 

products. 

Cotton. 

Cotton 
seed  and 
its  pro- 
ducts. 

Live 
stock. 

Coal  and 
coke. 

Lumber. 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

*96i,6i8 
7  3.744 
60,583 
21,967 

24.497 

12,362 

35.889 

733.866 

1. 99 1 

26,724 

42,158 

583.990 

855 

18,786 

47.665 

399.147 

21,017 

2,217 

719 

7.522 

125.755 

132.411) 

53.803 
1,053,204 

21,132 
18,067 

Vicksburg,  Misst 

New  Orleans.  La.J 

14,414 
345. 100 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

Memphis,  Tenn  .  .  . 
Vicksburg,  Miss.t- 
New  Orleans,  La.t 


Receipts  and  Shipments,  in  Tons. 


Logs. 


64.323 
200,800 

72,500 
298. 85S 


Iron, 

steel 

and 

metals. 


135 
989 

78,836 


Groceries 
and  pro- 
visions. 


17,146 

10,044 

13.865 

794.946 


Stone, 

sand  and 

gravel. 


3,000 
6,756 


Miscella- 
neous   and 
unclassi- 
fied. 


Total. 


,574  370,425 

61,637  484.045 

15.593    '       299.660 

802,513    I   5,104,798 


♦Includes  832,590  passengers  in  local  excursion  traffic. 

t  The  traffic  with  the  Yazoo  River  and  its  tributaries  not  included. 

X  Includes  exports  and  imports  and  the  domestic  coastwise  traffic  as  far  as  reported. 

§  In -ludes  262,793  tons  of  oil. 

siEnglneer's  Report.  1000.  11.  2.".14. 


Mississippi  Improvcnioiis  and   Traflic  Prospects  i6l 

ocean  closed  only  22  per  cent  of  the  twelve  months  in  the  place 
of  the  present  waterway  which  is  blocked  with  ice  40  per  cent 
of  the  year.  The  wholesale  merchants  are  practically  barred,  by 
the  prohibitory  railroad  freight  rates,  from  the  territory  south  of 
the  Ohio  River  both  east  and  west  of  the  Mississippi.  The  coming 
improvements  of  the  Ohio,  Cumberland,  Tennessee,  Red  and  Ar- 
kansas rivers  will  open  the  entire  South  to  the  northern  trade. 

With  an  improved  Mississippi  and  the  deep-water  channel 
made  to  Chicago,  a  lively  contest  may  be  waged  as  to  which  route 
the  grain  from  St.  Louis  will  take  for  exportation  to  Liverpool. 
The  average  rate  charged  for  the  years  1899-1903,  inclusive,  from 
St.  Louis  to  Liverpool  via  New  Orleans,  was  10.99  cents^-  and  via 
New  York  it  was  16.33  cents. ^^  For  the  same  period  the  rate 
from  Chicago  to  Liverpool  via  the  lakes  and  the  Erie  Canal  was 
9.15  cents.^*  If  the  improved  Mississippi  will  make  a  correspond- 
ing reduction  in  the  rate  via  New  Orleans  that  the  deep  waterway 
will  occasion  via  New  York,  grain  will  continue  to  go  to  New  Or- 
leans from  the  St.  Louis  market.  In  1905,  the  flour  rate  from  Kan- 
sas City  to  Liverpool  via  New  York,  rail,  lake  and  canal,  was  30.24 
cents  per  100  pounds,  while  it  was  only  26.15  cents  via  New  Or- 
leans.^^  With  an  improved  Missouri,  Mississippi  and  the  deep- 
water  channel  to  Chicago  the  grain  from  Kansas  City  might  have 
a  choice  of  two  routes. 

Upon  the  completion  of  the  Panama  Canal  there  will  be  a  vast 
increase  in  the  traffic  moving  southward  to  the  gulf.  With  the 
deepened  upper  Mississippi,  the  channel  connecting  the  Mississippi 
with  the  Great  Lakes  via  the  Illinois  River,  and  the  improved 
channel  from  St.  Louis  to  the  gulf,  the  Middle  West  will  be  put 
into  direct  communication  with  the  cities  of  the  Pacific  Coast  as 
well  as  with  those  of  Hawaii,  the  Philippines,  Japan,  China,  and  wes- 
tern South  America.  A  saving  of  between  8,700  to  8,946  miles  will 
be  made  between  Chicago  and  San  Francisco  and  Asiatic  ports 
via  the  ]\Iississippi  and  the  Panama  Canal.  The  central  part  of 
the  Middle  West  will  be  590  miles  nearer  San  Francisco  and  other 
Pacific  ports  than  New  York.  The  people  of  South  America  are 
already  purchasers  in  United   States  to  the  extent  of  $40,000,000 

"^Hearlnps  on  Rail.   Rates,   p.  498. 

^Ihid.  p.  493. 
^lUd.  p.  505. 


i62  The  Annals  of  tiic  American  Academy 

a  year,  and  a  great  share  of  this  is  from  the  Middle  West.  Every 
effort  is  being  made  to  secure  more  of  this  trade  at  the  expense 
of  Germany. 

When  direct  water  communications  are  estabhshed  between  the 
Mississippi  and  South  and  Central  America  so  that  vessels  loaded 
at  South  American  ports  can,  without  breaking  bulk,  discharge  their 
cargoes  at  ports  on  the  upper  Mississippi  or  the  Great  Lakes,  an 
inestimable  increase  in  the  trade  of  the  Central  West  will  occur. 

Summary 

Some  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  the  difficulties  involved  in 
the  improvement  of  the  Mississippi  has  been  given.  The  neces- 
sity of  awaiting  for  full  reports  and  estimates  before  inaugurating 
the  greater  projects  has  been  shown.  Sufficient  evidence  has  been 
presented,  however,  to  establish  the  fact  that  the  improvements 
will  be  of  great  value.  Added  emphasis  is  given  to  this  when 
the  congestion  of  freight  in  all  parts  of  the  country  in  1906  is 
recalled.  James  J.  Hill  asserted  that  it  would  take  yZ-ZZZ  miles 
of  railroads,  constructed  during  the  ensuing  five  years,  and  cost- 
ing $5,500,000,000  to  relieve  the  situation.  Railroad  corporations 
have  since  met  with  such  difficulties  in  securing  capital  during  the 
past  two  years  as  to  delay  even  modest  extensions  of  their  lines. 
Relief  can  come  only  by  the  government's  undertaking  a  national 
system  of  improvement  of  its  navigable  waters.  It  is  the  best 
way  that  can  be  adopted  for  further  regulating  rail  rates  and 
assisting  in  extending  the  transportation   facilities  of  the  country. 

As  a  business  proposition  it  will  pay  great  returns  if  the 
rivers  are  made  freight  carriers  and  rate  regulators.^''  The  census 
report  of  1900  states  that  the  cost  of  transportation  on  all  railroads 
of  the  United  States  averaged  7.5  mills  per  ton  per  mile,  on  the 
Ohio  River  to  Cincinnati  .32  mill,  and  on  the  lower  Mississippi 
.1  mill.  Tf  James  J.  Hill's  statement  be  correct  that  railroad 
transportation  cannot  be  performed  at  much  less  than  one-half 
cent  a  ton  per  mile  while  by  steel  barge  freight  can  be  carried 
on  a  deep  channeled  river  at  the  cost  of  one  mill,  then  water 
navigation  will  continue  the  cheapest  for  a  large  class  of  commo- 
dities. 

'"Cong.  Rooords  41.  p.  2280.      Spopcli  of  Joseph   E.  Ransdell  in  IToiisp  of  Repre- 
sentatives, January  31,  1007. 


Mississippi  Improvements  and  Traffic  Prospects  163 

But  the  friends  of  the  Mississippi  River  improvements  must 
remember  that  similar  arguments  are  at  present  being  advanced 
for  the  improvement  of  many  other  rivers  in  the  country.^^  Every 
effort  must  be  made  to  intensify  the  spirit  of  co-operation  which 
has  exhibited  itself  in  recent  conventions.  A  solid  majority  must 
be  secured  in  the  next  Congress  in  favor  of  much  larger  appro- 
priations for  the  various  meritorious  projects,  and  the  work  must 
be  inaugurated  upon  a  broad  national  basis  which  will  make  ade- 
quate provisions  for  improvements  in  every  section  of  the  countrv 
or  failure  will  result.  In  that  event  the  Panama  Canal  even  will 
not  enable  us  to  maintain  our  commercial  position  among  the 
nations  of  the  world. 

"See  Debates  on  recent  River  and  Harbor  Appropriation   Bill   in  Cong.   Records 
41,  also  Proceedings  of  National  Rivers  and  Harbors  Congress,   190G. 


WATER-POWER  IN  THE  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY^ 


By  Mr.  Calvin  O.  Althouse, 
Instructor  in  the  Department  of  Commerce,  Central  High  School,  Philadelphia. 


The  first  period  in  the  history  of  manufacturing  in  the  United 
States  was  that  in  which  the  streams  of  New  England  gave  sites 
to  small  villages  with  single  factories  dependent  upon  water-power. 
During  a  subsequent  period,  coal  was  the  concentrating  factor. 
Industrial  development  in  the  near  future  will  again  depend  largely 
upon  water-power.  But  that  water-power  is  a  resource  which  man 
can  easily  dissipate  has  not  yet  struck  home.  The  advantage  of 
electricity  as  a  means  of  transmitting  and  applying  power  so  de- 
veloped is  furnishing  a  mighty  stimulus  to  this  development. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  in  the  South  the  slopes  adjacent  to 
the  Appalachian  highland  are  capable  of  developing  3,000,000  horse- 
power, and  that  in  three  states,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina  and 
Georgia,  more  than  90,000  horse-power  has  been  developed  in 
cotton  mills  alone.  A  tremendous  aggregate  of  power  is  dispersed 
along  the  upper  water  of  the  streams  and  their  hundreds  of  tribu- 
taries which  find  outlet  into  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers.  In 
estimating  the  resources  of  the  region,  all  these  smaller  powers 
should  be  counted  in,  for  they  can  supply  power  for  local  industries, 
for  lighting  small  towns  and  for  transportation  on  local  lines. 

In  the  highlands  which  send  their  streams  precipitously  into 
the  Tennessee,  the  Cumberland  and  the  many  other  streams  merging 
into  the  Ohio  and  finally  the  Mississippi,  two  general  plans  of 
improvement  suggest  themselves  for  utilizing  the  water: 

(a)  By  building  high  stone  and  concrete  dams.  20,  50  or  even 
100  feet  high  across  the  narrow  gorges  with  wheel  pits  at  or  near 
the  dam,  and  the  construction  of  power  houses  immediately  above 
the  wheels.  In  this  manner  a  fall  of  water  equivalent  to  the  height 
of  the  dam  is  obtained,  and  the  steep  descent  of  the  channel  below 
the  dam  assures  the  quick  removal  of  the  water  from  beneath  the 
wheels. 

^The   paper   discusses    the    possibilities    of   dovelopins    water-power    in    the    Mis- 
sissippi Valley,  and  locates  many  of  the  power  sites,  hut  not  all  of  them.— Editor. 

(164) 


Water-Poii'cr  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  165 

(b)  Constructing  lower  dams,  and  conveying  the  water  either 
through  open  canals  or  closed  pipes  for  a  distance  along  the  banks 
of  the  stream  until  a  sufficient  fall  can  be  obtained,  at  which  point 
the  power  house  is  constructed. 

In  mountainous  regions  generally,  many  of  the  available 
sources  are  remotely  situated  and  not  within  easy  reach  of  railroads 
or  good  wagon  roads.  Again,  in  many  instances,  the  gorges  are  so 
narrow  and  the  country  so  rough  that  the  local  conditions  are  not 
favorable  to  the  establishment  of  adjacent  manufacturing  plants. 
Hence,  the  necessity  of  transmitting  the  power  electrically  to  points 
on  the  railroads  where  locations  for  the  establishment  of  manufac- 
turing plants  and  transportation  facilities  are  within  easy  reach. 

The  location  of  many  of  our  manufacturing  towns  has  been 
decided  by  desirable  and  ample  water-powers,  or  the  abundance 
and  cheapness  of  fuel  without  regard  to  nearness  of  raw  materials, 
or  the  markets  for  the  finished  product.  Therefore,  as  the  item 
of  cost  of  labor  lessens  by  use  of  improvements  in  machinery  and 
methods  of  manufacture,  the  item  of  cost  of  transportation  con- 
stitutes a  larger  percentage  of  the  cost  of  the  finished  product ; 
hence,  the  question  of  conveying  the  power  to  the  material  or  con- 
veying both  power  and  material  to  some  advantageous  point  grows 
in  importance. 

Conveyance  of  power  by  the  older  form  of  belting  and  shafting 
was  not  only  extremely  local  and  inefficient  but  on  the  inside  of 
buildings  was  regarded  as  unsanitary,  more  costly  to  operate  and 
oft:upied  too  much  room.  Then,  too,  this  method  lost  from  40  to 
50  per  cent  of  its  power,  whilst  electricity  loses  only  from  10 
to  18  per  cent  in  transmission.  Electricity  transmitted  not  in 
excess  of  forty  or  fifty  miles  will  cost,  regarding  all  the  elements 
of  installing  wheels,  generators,  switchboards,  etc.,  from  $16.00 
to  $40.00  per  horse-power,  while  steam,  under  similar  conditions, 
is  estimated  at  from  $45.00  to  $70.00  per  horse-power.  Electrically 
transmitted  power  has  undisputed  advantage  for  manufacturing 
purposes,  and  it  will  be  a  tremendous  factor  in  developing  non- 
utilized  water-power,  making  industrial  communities  where  none 
exist,  and  giving  wider  horizon  to  cities  already  feeling  the  quick- 
ened pulse  beat  of  new  commercial  life. 

Were  the  flow  of  the  rivers  constant  throughout  the  year  the 
problem  of  hydro-electric  power  would  be  comparatively  easy,  but 


i66  The  Annals  of  the  Ameriean  Academy 

as  changes  occur  it  becomes  necessary  for  us  to  bear  in  mind  the 
difference  between  "ordinary  low  flow"  and  "average  flow." 

Ordinary  lozv  floic  is  intended  to  represent  the  average  flow' 
during  a  period  of  twenty  or  thirty  days  in  the  late  summer  or 
fall,  when  the  river  is  lowest.  A  record  taken  for  a  period  over 
five  years  shows  the  month  of  lowest  stage  to  be  September. 

Average  flon'  represents  the  stage  of  the  river  assuming  it  to 
remain  constant  from  one  day  to  another  all  the  year  through. 
It  is  practically  the  actual  condition  that  would  exist  if  a  perfect 
and  uniform  system  of  reservoirs  was  applied  throughout  the  Mis- 
sissippi \'alley,  so  that  the  floods  could  be  held  back  and  distributed 
during  the  low-water  seasons.  This  question  of  average  flow  is 
of  great  importance  in  considering  water  powers. 

Already,  as  a  result  of  the  transmission  of  power  by  electricity, 
the  tendency  in  the  cotton  mills  of  the  South  is  toward  building 
larger  and  more  efficient  plants  instead  of  the  many  small  mills 
using  the  water  powers  direct.  As  in  the  seaboard  region  of  the 
South  the  use  of  water  powers  has  developed  rapidly  and  estab- 
lished marvelous  industrial  changes,  so  we  may  anticipate  similar 
transformation  in  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi. 

The  Mississippi  River  System 

The  drainage  area  of  the  Mississippi  is  estimated  variously 
from  1,261,000  square  miles  to  1,390,000  square  miles;  the  length, 
from  mouth  to  source,  if  Lake  Itasca  be  regarded  as  its  beginning, 
is  2,616  miles,  while  from  the  mouth  to  the  source  of  its  greatest 
tributary,  the  Missouri,  it  is  estimated  as  4,200  miles.  Its  average 
width  is  1,000  feet,  but  in  the  lower  reaches  of  the  river  it  varies 
from  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  a  mile,  and  at  flood  season  it  is 
far  in  excess  of  these  latter  figures.  The  maximum  depth  of  the 
channel  in  the  lower  half  of  the  river  is  from  60  feet  to  125  feet 
at  the  mouth.  The  maximum  flood  level  is  about  fifty-two  feet 
above  low  water  on  the  lower  section,  diminishing  to  fifteen  feet 
at  the  mouth.  The  source  of  the  Mississippi  is  1,680  feet  above 
sea  level.  The  average  total  discharge  from  the  basin  is  675,000 
cubic  feet  per  second. 

The  major  axis  of  the  basin  is  1.700  miles  long,  ex- 
tending southeast  from  the  northwest  portion  of  Montana, 
through  the  Dakotas,   Nebraska,   Missouri,  and   Tennessee,   down 


POWERS   DEVELOPED  ^^ 
"        AVAILABLE 


Benidji. 
Cass  Lake. 
Pokegama  Falls. 
Grand  Rapids. 
Big  Eddy  Rapids. 


9- 

10. 


Brainerd 
Olmsted's  Bar. 
Conradi's  Shoals 
Elk  Rapids. 
Little  Falls. 


11.  Pike's  Rapids. 

12.  Cashe's  Rips. 

13.  McDougal's  Rips. 

14.  Blanchard's  Rips. 

15.  Watab  Rapids 


16. 

17- 
18. 


Sauk  Rapids. 
Minneapolis. 
St.  Paul. 


Water-Power  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  167 

into  the  northwest  corner  of  the  State  of  Alabama,  with  one 
arm  going  off  northeast  into  the  Allegheny  Mountains.  The 
basin  takes  in  practically  thirty  states  and  a  part  of  the  Do- 
minion of  Canada.  With  regard  to  areas  drained  and  the  actual 
volume  of  the  streams  the  basin  may  be  divided  into  four  grand 
divisions:  The  Missouri  basin,  the  basin  of  the  Arkansas  and  Red 
rivers,  the  Ohio  basin,  and  the  basin  of  the  upper  Mississippi. 

From  the  west  toward  the  east  the  land  slopes  south  and  east 
from  an  elevation  of  4,000  to  6,000  feet  at  the  base  of  the  mountains, 
diminishing  to  less  than  1,000  feet  at  the  Mississippi.     In  the  eastern 
section,  a  large  portion  is  but  slightly  elevated.     In  eastern  Ken- 
tucky   and  Tennessee    occur    the    Cumberland    plateau    and    other 
tablelands.     The  average  elevation   is   from   500   feet,  in  southern 
Illinois  and  Indiana,  to  800  feet  in  the  northern  portions  of  these 
states.     The  average  elevation  of  Ohio  is  about    1,000  feet.     In 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee  the   surface  varies  from  300  feet,  near 
the  Mississippi,  to  from  600  to  1,000  feet  in  the  central  portions. 
On  the  Cumberland  plateau  the  height  averages  3,000  feet,  and  in 
the    East   Tennessee   Valley    from   600    feet   to   2,000    feet.      The 
average  elevation  in  the  immediate  region  of  the  sources  is  from 
1,200  to  1,600  feet  in  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin.     The  lay  of  the 
land    is   particularly    well    adapted   to   the   development   of   water 
powers  in  the  upper  regions  of  the  rivers  of  the  Mississippi  system. 
There  are  not  a  few  conspicuous  places  where  tremendous  power 
can  and  is  being  developed.     There  are  many  lesser  sites  which, 
when  taken  together,  make  an  astounding  aggregate. 

Available  Pozver  on  Upper  Mississippi 
From  Lake  Itasca  to  Lake  Bemidji  there  is  an  average  fall 
of  nine  feet  to  the  mile,  the  power  under  a  head  of  ten  feet  at  an 
ordinary  low  stage  above  Lake  Bemidji  is  estimated  at  eighty- 
seven  theoretical  horse-powder,  enough  to  run  a  good-sized  custom 
mill.  Below  this  point  is  to  be  found  another  site  between  Lake 
Bemidji  and  Cass  Lake,  where  220  to  475  horse-power  could  be 
developed.  Two  other  powers  of  sufficient  importance  to  com- 
mand notice  are  found  in  the  next  stretch  of  326  miles,  namely,  at 
Pokegama  Falls  and  Grand  Rapids. 

At  Pokegama  Falls  the  development  of  from  1,170  theoretical 
horse-power  to   2,477  theoretical   horse-power  is   possible,   which, 


i68  The  Annals  of  the  Anieriean  Academy 

with  increased  height  of  dam  could  be  increased  ultimately  to  5,200 
horse-power.  This  power  is  usable  for  most  of  the  year.  At 
Grand  Rapids  a  dam  of  six  feet  could  be  built,  which  would  not 
interfere  with  Pokegama  Falls,  and  develop,  under  varying  condi- 
tions, from  700  to  1,500  theoretical  horse-power. 

From  Grand  Rapids  to  Little  Falls,  a  distance  of  220  miles, 
there  is  no  concentrated  descent  which  could  be  rendered  available. 
Immediately  above  Little  Falls  there  are  several  rapids  which,  under 
improved  conditions,  would  render  appreciable  quantities  of  power. 
At  Big  Eddy  Rapids  it  would  be  possible  to  develop  from  2,200 
to  5,000  theoretical  horse-power,  depending  upon  the  flow.  Just 
four  miles  above  Brainerd,  on  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad,  is 
another  vantage  point  where  a  drop  of  some  four  and  a  half  feet 
is  found  in  a  distance  of  4,100  feet;  the  stage  of  the  river  under 
similar  conditions  is  slightly  greater  than  at  Big  Eddy  Rapids, 
so  that  practically  an  equivalent  of  power  might  be  produced. 

At  Olmsted's  Bar,  about  eleven  and  one-half  miles  below  the 
junction  of  Crow  Wing  River  with  the  Mississippi,  is  the  possi- 
bility of  from  3,780  to  8,630  horse-power.  Conradi's  Shoals  and 
Elk  Rapids,  between  Olmsted's  Bar  and  Little  Falls,  afiford  oppor- 
tunity for  the  production  of  several  thousand  horse-power,  it  being 
suggested  that  the  aggregate  would  exceed  that  at  Olmsted's  Bar, 
or  in  excess  of  8,000  theoretical  horse-power.  At  Little  Falls,  106 
miles  above  Minneapolis  by  water  and  ninety  miles  by  rail,  the 
river  has  a  descent  of  7.3  feet  in  2,100  feet.  The  configuration  of 
the  local  surroundings  is  such  that  at  the  bottom  of  the  falls  the 
banks  on  either  side  of  the  stream  range  from  twenty  feet  to 
twenty-seven  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  water. 

A  number  of  years  ago  several  mills  were  operated  at  this 
location,  but  those  in  charge  chose  rather  poor  sites,  letting  the 
excellent  place  at  the  crest  of  the  falls  go  by  default.  The  stream 
here  has  been  pronounced  navigable,  and  the  consent  of  the  gov- 
ernment would  be  necessary  before  a  dam  could  be  built,  but  this 
could  be  easily  arranged  by  providing  sluicing  for  logs  and  perhaps 
a  lock  for  steamboats  and  barges.  With  a  dam  of  ten  feet  3,951 
theoretical  horse-power  would  be  obtained  under  ordinary  low  flow, 
and  with  average  flow  8,696  theoretical  horse-power.  By  raising 
the  dam  to  sixteen  feet  and  concentrating  effort  at  this  point,  power 
to  the  extent  of   14,500  horse-power  could  be   developed,  but  it 


U'ater-Pozver  in  the  Mississippi  I 'alley  169 

might  impair  Elk  Rapids  above,  which  would  produce  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  3,000  horse-power.  The  difference  would  be  such, 
however,  as  to  favor  Little  Falls. 

From  Little  Falls  to  Sauk  Rapids,  thirty-one  miles  distant, 
the  descent  of  the  river  is  rapid,  the  average  slope  being  3.1  feet 
per  mile.  The  chief  points  of  concentration  are  Pike  Rapids,  Cashe's 
Rips,  McDougal's  Rips,  Blanchard's  Rips  and  Watab  Rapids.  It 
has  been  proposed  to  build  dams,  one  at  Cashe's  Island,  with  a  head 
of  thirteen  feet,  and  another  at  Blanchard's  Rips,  with  a  head  of 
ten  feet.  The  first  would  probably  flood  back  to  Pike  Rapids  and 
the  second  to  about  the  foot  of  Cashe's  Rips.  The  flow  being  essen- 
tially the  same  here  as  at  Little  Falls,  the  ordinary  low  flow  would 
produce,  under  three  feet  head,  5,136  theoretical  horse-power,  and 
under  ten  feet,  3,951  theoretical  horse-power;  with  the  average 
flow  the  result  would  be  respectively  11,660  horse-power  and  8,696 
horse-power.  The  total  fall  from  the  head  of  Little  Falls  to  Sauk 
Rapids  is  ninety-five  feet,  and  there  are  several  places,  according 
to  James  L.  Greenleaf,  Assistant  Professor  in  the  School  of  Mines, 
Columbia  University.  New  York,  w^here  utilization  of  power  could 
be  made  at  little  cost. 

In  the  stream  between  St.  Paul  and  the  headwaters  dams  now 
exist  at  the  following  places:  One  between  St.  Paul  and  Minne- 
apolis, two  at  Minneapolis,  one  at  Watab  Rapids,  one  at  Little 
Falls,  one  at  Brainerd,  one  at  Grand  Rapids.  And  Congress  has 
authorized  in  addition;  one  between  St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis, 
one  at  Ostego,  one  at  Monticello,  one  at  St.  Augusta,  two  at  Sauk 
Rapids,  one  at  Pike  Rapids,  one  at  Bemidji.  Also  one  on  the  Crow 
Wing  River  below  Gull  Lake. 

The  influence  of  the  reservoirs  at  the  headwaters  on  the 
water  powers  and  what  they  mean  to  the  states  interested  cannot 
be  adequately  treated  here,  but  they  must  be  considered  briefly. 
Their  prime  purpose  is  in  steadying  river  discharge  to  prevent 
abnormal  flow,  or  at  least  minimize  the  occurrence  and  to  furnish 
ample  flow  in  the  dry  season.  The  five  reservoirs  established  by 
the  United  States  in  IMinnesota  between  the  years  of  1884  and  1895 
have,  during  the  period  of  their  operation,  been  of  inestimable 
value.  Thev  have  cost  a  million  and  a  quarter  of  dollars  to  build 
and  maintain.  They  store  ninety-six  million  cubic  feet  of  water. 
From  an  estimate  recently  made  the  manufacturing  of  Minnesota 


170  The  Annals  of  the  Anierica)i  Academy 

is  benefited  to  the  extent  of  $13,000  for  each  bilUon  cubic  feet  of 
water  so  stored.  The  influence,  therefore,  of  those  existing  and  of 
the  balance  of  the  original  number  projected,  forty-one,  which 
ought  to  be  made  operative,  is  tremendous,  and  affects  the  whole 
question  of  water  powers  on  the  Mississippi  proper. 

The  Mississippi  River  above  St.  Paul,  as  shown,  is  exceedingly 
well  adapted  to  water-power  purposes.  The  banks  are  generally  high, 
making  flowage  rights  comparatively  inexpensive ;  the  bed  is  gener- 
ally firm,  making  foundations  comparatively  easy ;  the  slope  of  the 
river  is  exceptionally  steep,  making  mill  sites  numerous ;  the  total  fall 
from  Grand  Rapids  to  St.  Paul  is  about  578  feet,  and  a  reservoir 
system  at  the  headwaters  of  the  river  greatly  increases  its  low- 
water  flow. 

At  Minneapolis  the  river  has  a  utilized  head  and  fall  of  sixty- 
eight  feet,  which  is  divided  into  two  parts.  At  the  upper  falls  are 
located  all  the  flouring  mills  and  other  industrial  establishments ;  at 
the  lower  falls  is  the  electric  plant.  The  utilized  power,  in  1906, 
at  St.  Anthony  Falls  was  40,000  horse-power,  while  plans  under 
consideration  will  increase  this  from  three  nearby  sources  by  several 
thousand  horse-power.  At  Keokuk,  Iowa,  plans  are  under  way, 
by  the  Hamilton  Power  Company,  to  develop  an  immense  power 
plant  which  will  create  200,000  horse-power.  Few  available  sites 
exist  below  this  point,  on  the  Mississippi  proper,  but  numerous  and 
valuable  water  powers  exist  on  the  two  great  branches  tributary  to 
the  Mississippi,  on  the  Missouri  and  the  Ohio  and  its  branches. 

Pozwr  on  the  Missouri  and  Tributaries 

Difficulty  in  getting  accurate  and  complete  data  for  the  Mis- 
souri exists,  because  few  of  the  states  adjacent  to  its  course  fiave 
done  anything  along  this  line.  However,  much  valuable  informa- 
tion is  at  hand  from  the  State  of  Montana  which  shows  what  the 
Missouri  may  furnish  in  the  future. 

In  1898  the  Madison  River  Power  Company  began  the  con- 
struction of  a  plant  which  was  completed  in  1902.  It  is  located  on 
the  Madison  River  Canyon,  near  Red  Bluff,  sixty-five  miles  from 
Butte,  to  which  latter  place  the  current  is  brought  for  commercial 
use.  The  transmission  is  by  aluminum  wire  with  from  40,000  to 
80,000  volts.    The  cost  was  approximately  $300,000. 

The  Big  Hole  Electric  Power  Company  is  located  on  the  Big 


1.  Red  Bluff. 

2.  Canyon  Ferry. 


3.  Great  Falls. 

4.  Kalispell. 


POWERS  DEVELOPED  =^ 
AVAILABLE 


I.   Chattanooga. 


Watcr-Poii'cr  in  the  Mississippi  rallcy  171 

Hole  River,  twenty-seven  miles  from  Butte,  on  the  Oregon  Short 
Line  Railway.  The  dam  is  fifty  feet  high  and  about  500  feet  long 
on  the  crest.  F'our  thousand  horse-power  is  developed  and  sent  to 
Butte  across  country  at  15,000  volts.  This  plant  was  started  in 
1897  and  completed  in  1900,  the  cost  being  estimated  at  $800,000. 
In  the  northwestern  end  of  the  State  of  Montana  another  success- 
ful power  company  is  in  operation.  Near  Kalispell,  on  the  Big 
Fork  River,  is  the  plant  of  the  Big  Fork  Electric  Power  Company. 
Here  the  fall  from  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  receiving  basin 
to  the  base  of  the  wheel  pit  is  109  feet.  A  capacity  of  1,350  horse- 
power is  developed,  the  plant  having  cost  $150,000.  The  demand 
for  the  power  from  this  plant  has  been  such  as  to  compel  the  com- 
pany to  take  steps  to  increase  its  output. 

The  Missouri  River  Power  Company  has  its  present  power 
house  located  on  the  Missouri  River  about  twenty  miles  almost 
directly  east  of  Helena,  at  the  little  town  of  Canyon  Ferry.  At 
the  mouth  of  the  canyon  a  dam  480  feet  in  length  has  been  thrown 
across  the  stream,  designed  to  give  a  thirty-foot  head  of  water. 
One  of  the  peculiarities  of  this  special  body  of  water  is,  that  though 
the  water  may  freeze  in  a  lake  a  short  distance  back  from  the 
canyon,  the  water  flows  to  the  power  house  as  free  from  ice  in 
winter  as  in  summer.  Here  is  developed  10,000  horse-power,  all 
of  which  is  consumed,  and  the  demand  is  greatly  in  excess  of  the 
supply.  Helena,  twenty  miles  away  and  East  Helena  fourteen 
miles  away,  receive  their  supply  from  this  point,  and  recently 
power  has  been  transmitted  to  Butte,  sixty-five  miles  away. 
This  plant  is  distinctive  in  that  it  transmits  power  successfully  at 
the  high  pressure  of  50,000  volts. 

Last  year  Congress  granted  to  another  company,  the  Missouri 
River  Lnprovement  Company,  the  right  to  build  a  dam  below  the 
Great  Falls  of  the  Missouri,  and  about  fourteen  miles  down  the 
river  from  the  City  of  Great  Falls.  What  power  will  be  devel- 
oped here  is  yet  a  matter  of  conjecture,  but  it  bids  fair  to  eclipse 
the  largest  yet  developed  in  Montana.  Little  information  exists 
as  to  present  available  sites,  but  a  glance  at  the  region  will  indi- 
cate that  the  resources  have  just  been  touched.  At  Sioux  Falls 
and  other  points  along  the  Missouri  and  its  tributaries  various  pro- 
jects have  been  broached.  As  we  come  down  out  of  the  foothil's 
the  even  trend  of  the  prairie  precludes  water-power  in  the  lower 
reaches  of  the  river. 


1/2  The  Annals  of  the  /Intcrican  ^Icadcniy 

The  Ohio  and  Tributaries 

By  the  union  of  the  Monongahela  and  Allegheny  rivers  at 
Pittsburg  the  Ohio  River  is  formed,  with  a  drainage  area  above 
that  point  between  18,000  and  19,000  square  miles.  Its  drainage 
basin  totals  214,000  square  miles. 

The  principal  streams  contributing  to  this  area  are :  on  the 
north  side,  the  Beaver,  Muskingum,  Scioto,  Great  Miami  and 
Wabash  rivers,  and  on  the  south,  the  Little  Kanawha,  Great 
Kanawha,  Big  Sandy,  Licking,  Kentucky,  Green,  Cumberland  and 
Tennessee.  These  streams  give  to  the  Ohio  system  a  vast  range 
of  territory  and  make  it  tributary  to  the  larger  part  of  the  western 
Appalachians,  all  the  way  from  New  York  down  into  Georgia  and 
Alabama. 

Mr.  D wight  Porter  states  in  the  seventeenth  volume  of  the 
census  report  of  1880  that  there  is  "no  question  that,  in  their  upper 
courses,  above  the  limits  of  navigation,  the  various  tributaries  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Ohio  and  their  own  affluents,  present  in  the  aggre- 
gate much  available  water-power.  Those  to  the  north  of  the 
Ohio  are  already  largely  in  use,  and  will  admit  of  much  further 
development."  It  was  originally  thought  that  the  powers  in  this 
region  were  individually  of  no  great  magnitude  and  suited,  there- 
fore, only  to  small  manufacturing,  but  when  we  see  50,000  to 
60,000  horse-power  plants  going  up  on  the  stream  hitherto  regarded 
as  of  little  consequence  we  are  compelled  to  revise  authorities  of 
twenty  years'  standing. 

One  of  the  chief  disadvantages  to-day  to  the  fuller  utilization 
of  the  streams,  especially  on  the  north  side  of  the  Ohio,  is  the  in- 
sufficient supply  of  water  in  summer  and  fall,  and  the  heavy  fresh- 
ets;  by  engineering  skill  these  objections  are  being  met,  and  the 
policy  of  afforestation  will  also  aid.  The  principal  use  of  power 
on  these  rivers  to  date  has  been  for  flouring,  grist  and  saw  mills, 
but  on  certain  rivers,  notably  the  Great  Miami  and  the  Beaver, 
general  manufacturing  has  established  itself. 

The  Ohio  River  [^er  se  presents  few  opportunities  for  the 
development  of  water-power,  the  two  really  available  sites  being 
at  Louisville  and  Davis  Island  Dam.  Engineers  estimate  that  from 
17,000  to  144,000  horse-power  can  be  produced  at  Louisville  Falls. 
600  miles  below  Pittsburg  and  135  miles  below  Cincinnati. 
As    early    as    1873    plans    to    this    end    were    presented    utilizing 


POWERS   DEVfLOPED^^ 
'5         AVAILABLE=^ 


1.  Davis  Island  Dan:i 

2.  Connellsville. 

3.  Falls  City 


4.  Beaver  Falls. 

5.  New  Brighton, 

6.  Fallston. 


7.  Zanesvillc. 

8.  Marietta. 


IVater-Pozccr  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  173 

the  present  government  dam  and  canal.  On  the  Indiana  bank 
of  the  river  a  low  wing  dam  of  rip-rap  diverts  enough  water  to  run 
a  few  small  plants  situated  above  on  the  bluffs,  and  a  trifling  use 
of  power  is  reported  also  on  the  Kentucky  side.  Many  objections 
have  been  raised,  but  the  main  project  is  entirely  possible  if  suffi- 
cient capital  would  develop  the  site. 

At  Davis  Island  Dam,  a  few  miles  below  Pittsburg,  it  is 
suggested  that  from  3,000  to  4,000  horse-power  could  be  developed 
on  an  average  of  from  seven  to  eight  months  a  year,  by  taking  advan- 
tage of  the  ten-foot  fall  below  the  dam  as  now  constructed.  The 
two  outer  branches  of  the  Ohio,  viz.,  the  Allegheny  and  Monon- 
gahela-Youghiogheny  furnish,  comparatively,  little  power.  On  the 
Allegheny  there  are  a  few  powers,  ranging  from  75  to  250  horse- 
power and  one  of  570  horse-power.  With  the  improvements  now 
being  made  in  the  generation  of  hydro-electric  power,  however, 
these  conditions  may  be  improved.  The  Monongahela  is  essen- 
tially a  navigable  river  all  the  time,  the  aim  of  the  coal  companies 
being  to  get  their  barges  down  to  Pittsburg,  thence  on  to  the  West 
and  South.  There  are  a  few  powers,  none  in  excess  of  seventy 
horse-power,  however. 

Water  powers  are  utilized  to  a  greater  extent  on  the  Youghio- 
gheny  River,  there  being  two  points  at  which  use  is  made  of  electric 
power. 

Connellsville,  in  the  center  of  the  great  coke  region  of 
Pennsylvania,  develops  from  70  to  170  horse-power;  while  fifty- 
six  miles  from  the  source,  at  Falls  City,  where  a  thirty-four  foot 
fall  is  found,  from  350  to  900  horse-power  is  used.  On  the  Beaver 
River,  at  Beaver  Falls,  there  is  developed,  under  a  head  of  nine- 
teen feet,  from  650  to  1,510  horse-power.  At  New  Brighton  and 
Fallston,  on  the  same  river,  from  Txdo  to  1,400  theoretical  horse- 
power is  produced. 

The  Muskingum  River,  taking  in  the  greater  part  of  eastern 
Ohio,  has  eleven  state  dams  constructed  from  which  power  is 
leased  for  thirty  years  at  a  time  for  so  much  per  cubic  foot  per 
second  per  annum.  On  this  stream  the  two  more  important  points 
are  Zanesville,  966  horse-power,  and  Marietta,  where  900  horse- 
power is  developed.  The  Little  Kanawha  furnishes  small  sites 
developing  from  12  to  215  horse-power  v^ith  an  average  of  35 
horse-power.     On  the  Great  Miami  water  powers  have  been  util- 


174  TIk:"  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

ized   for  years,  the  estimated   power  now  being  developed   in  the 
valley  is  placed  at  from  8,000  to  9,000  horse-power. 

The  Upper  Tennessee 

To  the  south  the  Tennessee  River  furnishes  tremendous  possi- 
bilities. Rising  in  the  foothills  of  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains  and 
cutting  through  the  Appalachian  system  by  many  tributary  streams, 
the  story  of  the  Tennessee  is  the  account  of  its  tributaries  to  a 
large  extent.  Above  the  Tennessee  line  the  drainage  basin  is  about 
1,831  square  miles.  From  Georgia  into  North  Carolina  the  stream 
is  rather  sluggish,  but  from  beyond  Franklin,  North  Carolina,  il 
goes  through  rocky  gorges  with  a  descent  of  from  ten  to  forty  feet 
to  the  mile.  A  few  water  powers  are  in  use  here,  but  the  possibili- 
ties are  enormous.  One  of  the  principal  tributaries  of  the  Ten- 
nessee, the  French  Broad  River  with  its  many  affluents,  furnishes 
admirable  sites  in  its  passage  through  the  Smoky  Mountains  and  the 
smaller  ranges  to  the  westward. 

Through  the  upper  counties,  near  its  origin  in  North  Caro- 
lina, the  river  passes  through  a  deep  narrow  gorge,  from  which 
power  developed  could  be  carried  back  into  a  rather  rich  country. 
Below  this  section  are  numerous  falls  where,  according  to  the 
report  of  the  state  geologist,  "water  powers  of  great  magnitude" 
can  be  developed.  Lack  of  data  as  to  flow  of  the  stream  prevents 
expressing  this  condition  in  figures  of  measurable  value. 

The  Watauga  River,  another  tributary  to  the  Tennessee,  is 
described  as  being  everywhere  a  rapid  one,  for  the  most  part  run- 
ning through  a  deep  narrow  gorge  with  rock  bottom  and  rock  sides, 
thus  furnishing  at  many  points  excellent  facilities  for  the  con- 
struction of  dams.  The  fall  of  the  stream  from  the  Tennessee 
line,  a  distance  of  some  nineteen  miles,  is  900  feet,  the  average  fall 
per  mile  being  about  forty-seven  feet,  hence  the  matter  of  utiliza- 
tion becomes  merely  a  matter  of  convenience. 

All  told,  there  are  about  ten  available  first-class  water-power 
sites  on  the  thirty  miles  of  the  stream.  At  the  mouth  of  Beech 
Creek,  about  four  miles  above  the  state  line,  there  is  an  especially 
fine  site  where,  from  the  report  of  the  geological  survey  for  North 
Carolina,  it  is  said  almost  any  desired  power  can  be  generated. 
Thousands  of  horse-power  are  unutilized  on  the  comparatively 
small  reach  of  this  powerful  stream. 


Water-Poiccr  in  the  Mississippi  J ^ alley  175 

The  Toe  River  furnishes  another  admirable  source  of  power. 
This  stream,  some  forty-five  miles  in  length,  offers  nine  available 
water-power  sites,  and  a  projected  and  partially  completed  raili 
road  follows  the  river  sufficiently  near  to  make  the  latent  water 
powers  accessible.  Gaugings  taken  show  that  the  flow  is  of  such 
a  nature  as  to  develop  from  sixty-six  to  ninety  horse-power  per 
foot  of  fall  throughout  the  region  where  the  available  sites  exist. 
The  South  Toe  furnishes  seven  available  sites,  one  of  which  has 
a  fall  of  3.5  feet  in  100  feet,  over  a  ledge  of  coarse  granite,  at 
which  point  the  stream  is  fifty  feet  wide  and  where  ample  space 
exists  for  buildings.  Another  branch,  the  Caney  River,  gives  eight 
sites  for  power  usage,  and  the  character  of  the  stream,  flowing 
through  a  deep  narrow  rock-bound  gorge,  makes  dam  building  easy. 

The  Pigeon  River,  some  fifty-five  miles  in  extent,  joining  finally 
with  the  French  Broad,  through  the  major  part  of  its  course 
has  a  fall  of  twenty-six  feet  to  the  mile.  It  furnishes  four  excel- 
lent sites  and  the  surrounding  country  is  such  that  by  transmission 
it  would  furnish  power  to  towns  on  the  Western  North  Carolina 
Railroad,  and  to  one  or  two  other  larger  towns,  notably  Waynes- 
ville.  Numerous  other  powers  are  found  on  the  Hiwassee,  where 
thirteen  are  available ;  the  Cheowah  with  seven ;  the  Tuckaseegee 
with  seventeen  ;  the  Little  Tennessee  with  nine,  and  the  New  River 
with  fifteen. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  evidences  of  the  growth  of 
hydro-electric  development  is  to  be  found  in  the  recent  project 
for  the  building  of  a  plant  at  Chattanooga.  Tennessee,  which  will 
develop  52,000  horse-power. 

All  through  this  region  evidences  of  the  increased  use  of  this 
resource  is  to  be  seen.  The  Cumberland  River  in  the  upper  reaches 
above  Nashville  furnishes  several  ample  sites  for  power  which, 
if  developed,  would,  by  transmission  to  Nashville  and  other  river 
points,  aid  in  swelling  the  $10,000,000  worth  of  trade  which  is 
annually  carried  on  this  stream. 

Enough  has  been  detailed  to  demonstrate  the  mighty  force  now 
unused  in  the  great  valley  of  the  Mississippi.  The  maps  show  th^^t 
the  powers  are  concentrated  in  four  general  centers,  each  of  which 
has  its  significance.  In  the  Missouri  or  Montana  district  the  power 
to-day  is  being  used  to  light  cities,  operate  urban  railway  lines, 
run  copper  smelters,  for  local  manufacturing  and  for  mining.     As 


176  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

a  factor  in  city  life  and  growth  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance. 
Comparatively  cheap  power  will  furnish  a  stimulus  to  the  produc- 
tion and  manufacture  of  the  minerals  mined,  give  cheaper  and 
more  frequent  transportation  facilities,  allow  of  the  growth  of 
cities  and  provide  a  basis  for  new  communities. 

Capitalized  at  ^16.00  per  horse-power  per  annum  it  is  con- 
servatively estimated  that  from  $64,000,000  to  $70,000,000  worth 
of  hydro-electric  power  is  annually  going  to  waste  in  the  Mississippi 
system. 

The  rise  of  Minneapolis  as  a  milling  center  has  been  largely 
due  to  her  natural  site  where  she  enjoys  an  unusual  power  advan- 
tage. The  present  total  valuation  of  water-power  developments 
in  operation  on  the  Mississippi  River  between  Minneapolis  and  the 
reservoirs,  including  mills,  factories,  electric-light  plants  and  other 
industrial  establishments  depending  upon  water-power  can  safely 
be  estimated  at  $2,250,000.  There  are  now  building  and  in  process 
of  construction  water-power  developments  above  ^Minneapolis  to 
the  value  of  $1,000,000.  Five  large  power  plants  are  under  con- 
sideration at  the  estimated  value  of  nearly  $3,000,000. 

In  the  region  of  the  twin  cities  of  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul 
the  annual  value  of  flour  out-put  from  mills  using  water-power  is 
$58,300,000,  feed  $6,700,000,  woolen  goods  manufacture  $500,000, 
electric  light  and  power  $800,000,  with  sundry  other  products 
totaling  some  $67,000,000.  The  aggregate  value  of  flour  mills, 
factories,  woolen  mills,  elevators,  shops,  etc.,  reaches  the  neighbor- 
hood of  $18,000,000,  with  the  approximate  annual  pay-roll  of 
$3,500,000. 

The  increased  use  of  our  natural  resources  in  this  section 
will  mean  our  greater  ability  to  compete  with  the  foreign  flouring 
and  milling  industries,  enable  us  to  develop  to  a  greater  extent 
our  agricultural  regions,  to  increase  our  manufactured  products 
and  enable  a  larger  population  to  live  in  the  region  tributary  to  the 
upper  Mississippi. 

As  copper  and  general  mining  will  be  benefited  in  the  north- 
west, flour  and  general  manufactures  in  the  Minneapolis  region, 
so  coal,  pottery,  iron  and  steel,  cutlery  and  general  manufactures 
would  be  benefited  in  the  Ohio  River  region.  It  is  claimed  that 
much  of  the  manufacturing  supremacy  of  eastern  Ohio  has  been 
due  to  her  cheap  water-power.     In  the  southeastern  part  of  the 


Water-Power  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  xy^ 

system   on   the   west-Appalachian   region   there   is    immense   possi- 
biHty,  but  as  yet  there  has  been  Httle  development. 

Chattanooga,  Tennessee,  has  a  bright  prospect  with  the  devel- 
opment of  the  proposed  52,000  horse-power  dam — this  is  going 
to  mean  much  to  the  agricultural  implement  business  and  cotton 
manufacturing  throughout  the  South.  The  lumber  and  cotton 
industries  will  have  a  tremendous  impetus  given  them,  while  better 
lighted  cities  and  better  transportation  facilities  will  give  a  new 
horizon  to  the  people.  Cheap  power,  and  long-distance  transmis- 
sion with  its  increased  output  under  more  desirable  conditions  than 
at  present,  concentration  of  production,  better  civic  conditions,  in 
what  are  now  practically  isolated  rural  communities  will  come  as 
the  consequence  of  our  fuller  appreciation  of  this  valuable  but 
inadequately  utilized  resource. 


THE   IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  MISSOURI   RIVER  AND 
ITS  USEFULNESS  AS  A  TRAFFIC  ROUTE 


By  Lawrence  M.  Jones, 

President  Missouri  Valley  River  Improvement  Association,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 


By  all  fair  reasonino^  the  Missouri  is  the  greatest  river  on  the 
American  continent.  From  the  three  forks  of  the  Missouri  north- 
west of  Yellowstone  Park  to  its  mouth,  as  the  stream  mean- 
ders, is  a  distance  of  2,547  miles,  and  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the 
Missouri-Mississippi  has  a  length  of  3,823  miles.  The  Missouri 
is  longer  than  the  entire  Mississippi,  and  more  than  twice  as  long 
as  that  part  of  the  Mississippi  above  their  confluence.  The  Mis- 
souri drains  a  watershed  of  580,000  square  miles,  or  one-sixth  of 
the  land  surface  of  the  United  States,  and  its  mean  total  annual 
discharge  is  estimated  to  be  twenty  cubic  miles,  or  at  a  rate  of 
94,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  which  is  more  than  twice  the  water 
discharged  by  the  upper  Mississippi.  The  IMissouri  is  by  far  the 
bolder,  the  more  rapid  and  more  turbulent  of  the  two  streams. 

It  is  the  most  feasible  waterway  project  in  the  United  States 
to-day.  The  results  to  be  realized  by  its  improvement  are  more  far- 
reaching  for  the  amount  of  money  to  be  expended  than  can  be 
secured  from  any  other  project.  The  Missouri  has  the  greatest 
navigable  length  of  any  river  in  the  L'nited  States ;  it  has  a  greater 
and  more  continuous  volume  of  water  than  any  other  river  in  the 
United  States;  it  has  more  and  better  stretches  of  "good  river" 
than  any  other.  It  is  the  only  interior  river  having  water  enough 
of  its  own  to  sustain  a  minimum  channel  of  twelve  feet. 

With  a  twelve-foot  channel  the  Missouri  would  have  a  freight- 
carrying  capacity  equal  to  600  single-track  railroads,  and  yet  the 
improvement  would  cost  less  than  to  build  one  single-track  railroad 
from  Kansas  City  to  St.  Louis.  A  competent  authority  has  cal- 
culated that  with  a  twelve-foot  channel,  the  Missouri  would  save 
the  West  every  year  an  amount  that  would  more  than  equal  the 
entire  cost  of  improvement  from  its  mouth  to  Kansas  City.  Its  im- 
provement as  planned  would  solve  two  great  problems  for  the 
West:  high  and  unfair  rates  and  inability  of  the  railroads  to  handle 

(17S) 


The  Improvoncnt  of  the  Missouri  River  179 

the  traffic  on  the  present  tracks.  The  greatest  problem  in  railroad 
transportation  to-day,  aside  from  that  of  exorbitant  and  unequal 
freight  rates,  is  to  secure  tracks  upon  which  to  move  cars.  New 
tracks  to  relieve  the  congestion  cannot  be  built.  There  is  neither 
money,  material,  nor  men  for  the  work.  When  we  realize  this, 
then  we  can  see  the  urgent  necessity  for  improving  the  great  natural 
highways  of  commerce  flowing  past  our  doors. 

Tlie  History  of  Stcainboatiiig  on  the  Missouri 

When  the  steamboat  and  the  prairie  schooner  were  the  only 
means  of  transportation  to  the  promised  land  of  the  great  West; 
when  the  gold  hunter,  the  trapper  and  the  adventurer  were  the 
pioneers  of  civilization,  hundreds  of  boats  plied  the  waters  of  the 
Missouri,  going  as  far  north  as  Fort  Benton,  twenty-five  hundred 
miles  from  St.  Louis.  Fortunes  were  made  by  a  boat  in  a  single 
trip.  Steamboating  reached  the  summit  of  its  prosperity  about  the 
time  of  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War.  More  than  700  boats 
navigated  the  Missouri  in  those  days,  and  more  than  200  now  lie 
buried  in  the  sands  between  Kansas  City  and  St.  Louis — silent 
reminders  of  the  glory  of  other  days. 

The  first  steamboat — the  Independence — ascended  the  Mis- 
souri River  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Chariton  River  in  the  spring 
of  1819.  However,  there  were  few  steamboats  on  the  river  previous 
to  1840,  owing  to  the  limited  demands  of  commerce.  For  many 
years  the  navigation  of  the  Missouri  River  was  confined  to  primi- 
tive wooden  craft,  and  its  commerce  was  restricted  to  the  fur  trade ; 
but  as  soon  as  it  was  known  that  the  Missouri  was  such  a  navigable 
river,  and  that  it  flowed  through  such  a  rich  agricultural  region, 
the  navigation  on  the  river  increased  until  the  year  1858,  when  it 
reached  its  maximum. 

In  1858  packet  lines  were  established  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Missouri  to  Miami,  Kansas  City,  St.  Joseph,  Omaha  and  even  to 
Sioux  City.  Those  lines  carried  United  States  mail  and  express 
freight.  So  numerous  were  the  boats  on  the  river  during  this 
period  that  it  was  no  unusual  sight  to  see  five  or  six  lying  at  the 
landing  at  the  same  time,  and  at  no  time  was  a  boat  out  of  sight 
during  the  boating  season,  which  continued  from  March  to  Novem- 
ber. The  prosperity  that  this  great  traffic  brought  to  the  river 
towns  was  phenomenal  and  the  population  of  many  of  them  was 


i8o  The  Annals  of  the  .■iiiicricaii  Academy 

larger  fifty  years  ago  than  to-day.  In  1857,  fifty  years  ago,  the 
wharfmaster  at  Kansas  City  reported  more  than  700  steamboats 
at  the  Kansas  City  Levee.  The  levee,  then  and  for  many  years, 
was  the  busiest  part  of  the  business  district,  but  the  Civil  War, 
following  close  upon  this  great  prosperity  of  the  Missouri  River 
caused  the  loss  of  many  of  the  boats  and  drove  others  from  the 
river. 

In  1862  gold  was  discovered  in  Montana,  in  consequence 
of  which  there  was  a  great  rush  to  that  country.  The  ^Missouri 
River  was  the  only  means  of  transportation  and  of  course  this 
caused  a  wonderful  revival  of  steamboating.  This  was  of  but  short 
duration,  but  it  proved  to  be  exceedingly  profitable,  as  the  rates 
demanded  and  paid  were  exorbitant.  The  voyage  to  Fort  Benton 
was  2,200  miles  and  this  was  beset  with  danger,  both  in  the  navi- 
gation and  from  the  Indians.  The  usual  rate  charged  on  freight 
was  from  ten  to  fifteen  cents  per  pound  and  a  first-class  passage 
to  Fort  Benton  cost  $300.00.  The  railroads  which  were  then 
rapidly  expanding  and  pushing  into  the  new  territory  soon  came 
into  such  competition  with  the  steamboats  that  they  forced  them 
out  of  business,  by  carrying  freight  cheaper  than  the  steamboats 
did.  However,  as  commerce  began  to  leave  the  river,  railroad 
rates  began  to  advance,  until  Kansas  City  business  men  felt  the 
necessity  of  seeking  relief  by  restoring  river  competition. 

In  February,  1890,  a  company  was  incorporated  under  the 
laws  of  the  State  of  Missouri,  with  an  authorized  paid-up  capital 
of  $132,500.  This  company  was  known  as  the  Kansas  City  and 
Missouri  River  Transportation  Company.  They  built  four  wooden 
boats  and  operated  them  more  or  less  regularly  for  four  years. 
Much  has  been  said  about  the  failure  of  this  packet  line,  but,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  it  did  more  to  regulate  freight  rates  between  the 
Mississippi  and  the  Missouri  than  anything  else  that  had  been  done 
before  or  since.  It  saved  the  shipper  $100  for  every  $5.00  he  had 
in  it ;  it  established  the  fact  that  water  competition  existed  in  Kan- 
sas City  and  the  railroads  had  to  meet  it.  The  old  packet  line  of 
1890  was  not  a  failure;  it  was  a  grand  success,  and  Kansas  City 
made  millions  of  dollars  out  of  it.  The  railroads  started  in  delib- 
erately to  put  this  packet  line  out  of  business,  and  by  rebates  and 
other  unfair  methods  succeeded  in  doing  so.  In  fact,  the  whole 
fabric  of  rates  went  to  pieces,  and  as  the  Kansas  City  and  Missouri 


TJic  Iniprovcnioit  of  the  Missouri  River  i8i 

River  Transportation  Company  was  not  properly  supported  by  the 
merchants,  it  was  forced  to  quit  business.  From  the  time  the 
Kansas  City  and  Missouri  River  Transportation  Company  discon- 
tinued business  until  late  in  the  summer  of  1906,  there  were  no 
efforts  made  to  navigate  the  Missouri  River. 

The  Missouri  River  Valley  Improvement  Association  was 
formed  July  30,  1906,  at  a  meeting  held  in  Kansas  City,  attended 
by  representatives  of  the  principal  commercial  bodies  of  Kansas 
City,  Missouri,  and  Kansas  City,  Kansas.  The  records  of  the  first 
year's  work  speaks  for  itelf.     Its  purposes  were: 

To  prove  the  Missouri  River  navigable. 

To   have  the  river  navigated  by  commercial   freight  carriers. 

To  secure  from  Congress  appropriation  for  improvement  of 
the  channel  in  aid  of  navigation. 

To  establish  and  maintain  a  close  working  relationship  with  the 
National  Rivers  and  Harbors  Congress  and  other  organizations 
promoting  river  improvement. 

To  conduct  a  campaign  of  education  intended  to  inform  the 
people  of  the  Missouri  A^alley  and  trans-Missouri  region,  the  officials 
in  Washington  and  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  of  the 
magnificent  possibilities  and  tremendous  commercial  importance 
of  Missouri  River  improvement. 

The  doubt  as  to  the  navigability  of  the  Missouri  River  by 
steamboats  carrying  sufficient  freight  to  render  operation  profita- 
ble which  existed  when  this  association  began  its  work,  has  been 
entirely  removed.  The  impression  seemed  to  have  become  general, 
even  in  commercial  centers  of  the  Missouri  Vallev,  among  the 
officials  in  Washington  and  with  the  members  of  the  Rivers  and 
Harbors  Committee,  that  the  Missouri  River  had  passed  its  days 
of  usefulness  as  a  commercial  highway.  There  is  a  different 
impression  now. 

There  are  signs  of  a  great  awakening  of  interest  in  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  Missouri  River  and  why  should  there  not  be,  when  Kan- 
sas City  is  paying  to-day  as  high  freight  rates  as  she  did  thirty  years 
ago?  There  is  no  relief  under  the  law,  and  the  only  redress  from 
the  grasp  of  this  relentless  power,  is  that  furnished  by  this  great 
highway  of  commerce,  the  Missouri  River. 


i82  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

Rc-estahlishment    of   Regular   Navigation 

One  year  ago  Kansas  City  decided  to  begin  navigating  the 
Missouri.  She  did  not  bombard  Congress  for  an  appropriation 
for  the  river,  but  went  to  work  to  demonstrate  that  the  thing  was 
feasible.  If  it  was  not  feasible,  we  did  not  want  any  money  from 
the  government ;  if  it  was  feasible,  we  were  satisfied  that,  when 
we  had  demonstrated  that  fact,  the  government  would  do  its 
part,  and  we  have  not  been  disappointed  in  our  calculations.  We 
believed  that,  with  the  use  of  the  river  would  come  governmental 
co-operation  and  that  w^e  should  first  show  our  faith  by  our  works 
before  asking  the  government  for  any  expenditure  of  money.  We 
are  firmly  convinced  that  use  and  improvement  should  go  hand  in 
hand.  Here  was  a  great  river  flowing  past  our  doors.  Here  was 
the  solution  of  our  transportation  troubles.  In  this  river  dwelt 
the  power  that  was  to  free  the  young  metropolis  and  the  great 
West.  The  river  was  the  same  river  as  when  hundreds  of  craft 
plowed  its  waters.     Why  not  use  it  now? 

One  year  ago  Kansas  City  procured  boats  for  experimental 
trips  from  St.  Louis  to  Kansas  City.  The  experiments  were  suc- 
cessful. The  boats  made  the  trip  from  St.  Louis  to  Kansas  City 
loaded  with  freight,  without  ever  turning  a  wheel  backward,  and 
this  year  regular  freight  and  passenger  service  has  been  Inaugu- 
rated. The  successful  experiments  in  navigating  the  Missouri  in 
the  summer  and  fall  of  1906  and  the  promise  of  Kansas  City  to 
use  the  river  more  extensively  than  ever,  enabled  our  member  of 
Congress,  Hon.  E.  C.  Ellis,  to  get  an  ample  appropriation  of  funds 
to  start  the  snag  boats  to  remove  obstructions  and  to  have  shore 
lights  placed.  Two  boats,  the  "General  Suter"  and  the  "James  B. 
McPherson,"  are  now  industriously  engaged  in  cleaning  the  chan- 
nel of  snags  and  other  obstructions  accumulated  during  years  of 
governmental  neglect.  This  appropriation  was  the  first  that  has 
been  made  in  aid  of  the  navigation  of  the  Missouri  for  several 
years.  Thus  the  Missouri  was  restored  "to  the  map"  of  navigable 
streams,  entitled  to  federal  aid.  In  addition  to  this  appropriation, 
provision  was  made  for  a  report  by  engineers,  upon  which  report 
appropriations  may  be  based  for  the  improvement  of  the  ^Missouri 
River  in  the  future. 

The  next  step  taken  was  the  organization  of  the  Kansas 
City  Transportation  and  Steamship  Company,  the  purpose  of  which 


The  Improvement  of  the  Missouri  River  183 

organization  was  to  maintain  regular  steamboat  service  between 
Kansas  City  and  St.  Louis.  This  company  put  into  operation,  with 
the  opening  of  navigation  this  spring,  a  line  of  boats  which  have 
n.acle  regular  trips  between  Kansas  City  and  St.  Louis.  The  peo- 
ple are  now  awake  to  the  great  things  in  store  for  the  West 
through  the  resumption  of  navigation  on  the  Missouri.  It  promises 
to  usher  in  an  era  of  large  development.  .    •   1  ,  t. 

With  imperfect  equipment,  we  are  able'  to  carry  freight  be- 
tween St.  Louis  and  Kansas  City  at  an  average  reduction  of  one- 
third  from  railroad  rates.  When  we  get  our  splendid  non-sinkab  e 
steel  boats,  for  which  we  are  now  letting  contracts,  we  confidently 
believe  we  can  carry  freight  for  one-half  the  railroad  rates  and 
realize  good  returns  on  the  investment.  We  have  demonstrated 
in  one  year  that  we  have  a  river,  that  we  have  the  money  to  build 
boats  and  that  we  have  the  freight  for  the  boats  to  carry.  The 
old  Missouri  is  once  more  ready  to  fulfil  its  destiny  as  one  of 
the  great  commercial  highways  of  the  We.t. 

Advantages  to  Aeerue  from  Improvement  of  the  Missouri  River 
The  best  way  to  arouse  sentiment  in  favor  of  an  improvement 
is  to  show  the  benefits  sure  to  accrue  from  it.  For  example  by 
usin-  the  proposed  twelve-foot  channel  of  the  Missouri,  the  four- 
teen^foot  waterway  via  the  Illinois  River  and  the  Chicago  Canal, 
the  Great  Lakes,  and  the  twelve-foot  Erie  Canal,  at  the  average 
freic^ht  rates  of  water  routes  as  compared  with  rail,  one  congres- 
siond  district  of  the  State  of  Kansas  would  have  received  for 
its  1006  wheat  crop  over  $5,000,000  more  than  at  the  prices  paid. 

It  would  not  have  been  necessary  that  one  bushel  of  this  whea 
should  actually  move  to  New  York  at  this  rate.  The  fact  that  it 
co^dd  would  make  the  price  for  the  entire  crop  not  only  of  the  dis- 
trict but  of  the  state  and  adjoining  states.  Wheat  is  sold  on  the 
world's  markets,  and  the  price  of  wheat  in  Kansas  or  Nebraska 
is  practicallv  that  of  Liverpool,  less  the  cost  of  transportation.  Re- 
ducing the  rate  raises  the  price,  regardless  of  the  ultimate  disposi- 
tion o^'r  destination  of  the  product.  _ 

To  bring  the  illustrations  of  the  gams  m  this  district  a  httle 
closer  home,  it  mav  be  said  that  one  county.  Sumner,  would  have 
crained  in  i9o6.$SOO,ooo.  or  a  per  capita  of  $20  for  not  only  the 
families  of  the  farmers,  but  for  the  residents  of  the  cities  and  towns 


184  The  Annals  of  tlic  /hncrican  Academy 

as  well.     Other  counties  of  the  same  district  would  have  gained 
per  capita  from  $20  to  $40. 

It  may  be  difficult  to  realize  just  what  this  would  mean  to  the 
farmers'  families,  to  the  tradesmen  of  the  towns,  and  to  the  job- 
bers and  manufacturers  of  the  cities  of  the  whole  trans-Mississippi 
wheat-growing  region.  It  would  mean  even  more  because  of  the 
lower  west-bound  freight  rates  on  the  products  sold  to  the  en- 
riched consumers,  adding  this  large  saving  to  his  other  big  profits. 
There  is  to  be  considered  also  the  enhanced  price  of  other  farm 
products  as  a  result  of  reduced  rates  to  their  best  markets.  With 
this  also  would  go  a  big  advance  in  prices  for  farm  lands,  so  that 
the  farmer  in  Kansas  to-day  may  find  himself  made  rich  by  the 
improvement  of  the  IMissouri  River. 

The  gain  in  the  value  of  farm  lands  in  the  states  of  Nebraska, 
Kansas  and  Oklahoma,  accruing  from  improvement  of  the  Mis- 
souri, would  pay  the  cost  several  times  over.  The  benefits  afforded 
would  continue  year  after  year,  while  the  cost  of  maintenance, 
once  the  channel  is  permanently  established,  would  be  insignificant 
in  comparison  with  either  its  first  cost  or  its  savings  to  shippers. 

Kansas  City  might  have  saved  several  million  dollars  on  its 
1906  shipments  with  an  improved  channel  in  the  Missouri.  This 
would  have  been  increased  largely  if  the  Missouri  was  used  in 
connection  with  the  Illinois  and  Erie  Canals  and  the  Great  Lakes 
to  make  a  direct  waterway  to  New  York,  and  by  the  improvement 
of  the  Mississippi,  to  afford  a  deep  water  route  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico. 

The  gain  to  Kansas  City,  Omaha,  and  other  Missouri  River 
cities  would  be  still  further  augmented  by  the  great  increase  of 
business — in  manufacturing,  jobbing  and  other  lines — as  a  result 
of  the  low  rates  and  the  exceptional  prosperity  that  must  come  to 
Nebraska,  Kansas,  Oklahoma  and  other  Western  States  by  the 
gain   in   price   of   their   products. 

These  two  examples — that  of  the  Seventh  Kansas  Congres- 
sional district  and  that  of  Kansas  City— have  been  selected  from 
among  many,  all  making  the  same  general  showing.  What  is 
true  of  the  Kansas  counties  named  is  true,  in  greater  or  less  degree, 
of  the  whole  State  and  other  Western  States  as  well ;  and  the  same 
can  be  said  of  Kansas  City  and  other  commercial  centers  on  the 
Missouri  River. 


The  Improvement  of  the  Missouri  River  185 

If  the  producer  cannot  find  means  to  transport  his  commodi- 
ties to  a  market  where  they  are  needed,  he  is  forced  to  cease  or  cut 
down  production  in  his  particular  Hne.  This  means  a  curtaihnent 
of  his  power  to  purchase  the  products  of  others,  which  of  course 
has  a  depressing  effect  on  labor,  brings  about  contraction  in 
financial  affairs  and  recession  in  business  generally.  Production  is 
growing  five  times  as  fast  as  railroad  mileage,  and  the  railroads 
of  this  country  are  absolutely  unable  to  catch  up  with  the  demands 
of  transportation.  This  will  necessitate  our  reducing  our  activi- 
ties in  production  with  the  far-reaching  effect  this  would  have  on 
labor  and  capital. 

A  car  shortage  would  be  unheard  of  if  we  made  proper  use 
of  the  inland  waterways  of  our  country.  They  would  furnish  a 
cheap  and  reliable  means  of  transportation,  not  conflicting  with 
the  railroads,  but  assisting  them  in  removing  the  greatest  obstacle 
to  commercial  and  industrial  progress — insufficient  transportation 
facilities.  The  Missouri  River,  improved  according  to  the  recom- 
mendations of  governmental  engineers,  would  have  a  freight-carry- 
ing capacity  equal  to  that  of  600  railways,  fifty  times  the  capacity 
of  all  the  roads  running  between  the  Mississippi  River  and  the 
lower  Missouri  and  more  than  twenty-five  times  the  capacity  of 
all  the  railroads  running  from  the  Mississippi  to  the  Missouri  at 
all  points. 

The  economy  of  operation  of  transportation  lines  on  the  im- 
proved Missouri  would  be  such  that  boats  could  make  large  profits 
in  carrying  freight  at  greatly  reduced  rates  between  the  rivers. 
Owing  to  the  bend  in  the  Missouri  at  Kansas  City,  that  city  is 
practically  the  point  farthest  west  for  inland  navigation.  Accord- 
ingly, when  the  improvement  of  the  Missouri  is  completed  to 
Kansas  City,  390  miles,  freight  rates  will  be  affected  to  the  entire 
trans-Missouri  Valley. 

This  territory  that  pays  the  same  freight  rate  as  Kansas  City 
on  traffic  moving  between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Missouri  consti- 
tutes one-fourth  of  the  area  of  the  United  States,  exclusive  of 
Alaska.  One-eighth  of  the  population  of  the  United  States  lives 
within  its  borders.  Removed  from  markets,  the  people  naturally 
have  to  pay  high  freight  rates  on  all  they  produce  and  consume. 
No  other  section  is  more  in  need  of  or  more  entitled  to  the  relief 
that  can  be  furnished  only  by  the  improvement  of  the  Missouri 
River. 


i86  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

These  people  have  no  other  river  project.  The  rates  east  of 
the  Mississippi  have  never  been  as  exorbitant  as  west.  First  class, 
from  Chicago  to  the  Mississippi,  the  rate  is  20  cents;  Mississippi 
to  Kansas  City  is  60  cents.  At  one  time  the  published  tariffs  from 
the  Mississippi  River  to  Kansas  City  were  on  a  basis  of  30  cents, 
first  class. 

The  Missouri  River  constitutes  5  per  cent  of  the  entire  navi- 
gable inland  waterways  of  the  United  States,  including  the  Great 
Lakes.  It  has  14  per  cent  of  the  navigable  waterway  of  the  region 
drained  by  the  Mississippi.  Its  navigable  length  is  greater  than 
the  distance  by  rail  from  St.  Louis  to  San  Francisco.  It  has  a 
navigable  bed  above  Sioux  City  of  1,475  miles,  or  500  miles  more 
than  the  entire  length  of  the  Ohio.  It  is  the  one  interior  river, 
except  the  lower  Mississippi,  which  it  feeds,  that  has  a  water  sup- 
ply sufficient  to  make  every  city  along  its  course  for  800  miles  a 
seaport.  The  territory  affected  paid,  in  1905,  15  per  cent  of  the 
freight  revenue  of  the  United  States,  or  $220,000,000,  of  which  a 
large  part  would  have  been  saved  to  producers  and  consumers  if 
the  Missouri  River  had  been  improved. 

Cost  of  Improvement 

The  cost  of  improving  the  Missouri  River,  from  its  mouth  to 
Kansas  City  would  be  less  than  that  of  paralleling  the  Wabash 
Railroad,  the  short  line  between  Kansas  City  and  St.  Louis.  Gov- 
ernment engineers  estimate  the  ^lissouri  River  can  be  given  a 
permanent  twelve-foot  channel  from  its  mouth  to  Sioux  City  at 
a  cost  of  $40,000,000.  The  Lakes-to-the-Gulf  deep  waterway 
project  calls  for  a  fourteen-foot  channel,  and  this  minimum  depth 
could  easily  be  obtained  in  the  Missouri  below  Kansas  City  with 
small  additional  cost.  The  engineers'  estimate  of  the  cost  of  the 
work  is  for  $20,000,000  below  and  $20,000,000  above  Kansas  City. 

The  ]\Iissouri  River  is  destined  to  form  an  important  part  in 
the  comprehensive  system  oi  deep  waterways  building  in  the 
United  States.  The  Erie  Canal  is  being  deepened  from  seven  to 
twelve  feet  at  a  cost  of  $101,000,000  appropriated  by  the  legislature 
of  New  York.  The  Chicago  Drainage  and  Ship  Canal  has  been 
extended  to  the  valley  of  the  Illinois  River,  the  canalization  of  which 
stream  would  give  a  fourteen-foot  channel  from  the  Great  Lakes 
to  the  Mississippi.     These  two  waterways,  in  connection  with  the 


The  Iinprovciiiciit  of  the  Missouri  River  187 

Great  Lakes,  would  open  up  a  water  route  from  the  Missouri  to 
New  York. 

The  amount  asked  for  the  Missouri  is  not  large  in  comparison 
with  the  cost  of  improving  other  streams.  The  Ohio  River,  on 
which  many  millions  have  been  spent,  must  have  $61,000,000  more 
to  give  it  a  nine-foot  channel.  The  Mississippi  needs  more  money 
than  the  Ohio,  so  that  the  Missouri  is  making  a  modest  demand. 
Draining  the  granary  of  the  country,  with  a  vast  tributary  region 
paying  high  rates  to  the  railroads,  and  demanding  the  relief  river 
navigation  would  afford,  the  right  of  the  Missouri  cannot  be 
ignored. 

Plans  of  Missouri  River  Improvement 

Two  plans  for  the  continuous,  systematic  improvement  of  the 
Missouri  River  have  had  official  approval — that  favored  by  the 
Missouri  River  Commission  and  that  under  which  work  was  car- 
ried on  in  the  early  90's.  The  report  of  the  Missouri  River  com- 
mission says: 

In  order  to  obtain  a  depth  of  twelve  feet  at  low  water,  wide  enough 
for  navigation,  a  result  that  can  be  regarded  as  perfectly  practicable,  suppose 
it  were  necessary  to  spend  as  much  as  $50,000  per  mile,  which  recent  exper- 
iments almost  conclusively  show  to  be  a  liberal  estimate,  the  cost  of  obtain- 
ing this  channel,  up  as  far  as  Kansas  City,  would  be  less  than  $20,000,000. 
An  amount,  as  before  shown,  saved  to  the  producers  of  the  valley  in  one 
year. 

To  carry  this  same  improvement  to  Sioux  City  would  cost  only  about 
$40,000,000 — saved  to  the  producers  in  two  years. 

To  improve  the  river,  even  between  Kansas  City  and  St.  Louis,  to  a 
low  water  depth  of  twelve  feet  is  deemed  perfectly  practicable,  and  at  a  cost 
per  mile  of  $50,000,  not  exceeding  that  of  a  first-class  railroad. 

This  would  give  us  a  highway  free  to  all  having  a  carrying 
'capacity  of  600  single  track  railroads. 

Congress  made  appropriations  in  1892  for  the  systematic  im- 
provement of  the  Missouri  River  in  aid  of  navigation,  but  the 
plan  provided  for  a  depth  of  six  instead  of  twelve  feet.  Appro- 
priations for  this  work  were  discontinued  after  1896,  and  not 
renewed. 


i88  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

Appropriations  for   IVaterways  an   Investment,  Not  an  Expense. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  internal  trade  of  the  United  States 
aggregates  more  than  twenty-five  bilHons  of  dollars  annually.  Ap- 
propriations of  fifty  millions  annually  for  waterways  would  be 
but  a  fraction  of  one  per  cent  of  this  great  business.  As  commerce 
bears  the  great  bulk  of  the  expenses  of  the  government,  it  seems 
but  fair  that  a  liberal  part  of  governmental  appropriations  should 
be  directed  toward  the  upbuilding  of  commerce.  In  the  race  for 
commercial  supremacy,  we  must  of  necessity  equip  ourselves  with 
all  the  facilities  necessary  to  hold  our  place  in  the  commercial 
world.  If,  by  the  expenditure  of  fifty  millions  annually  en  our 
waterways,  we  could  save  our  citizens  hundreds  of  millions  in 
transportation  charges,  to  say  nothing  of  the  great  impulse  it  would 
give  to  all  our  industries,  it  would  not  be  a  waste  of  money,  it 
would  not  be  an  expense,  but  a  magnificent  investment. 

There  is  a  close  relation  between  the  improvement  of  our 
rivers  and  the  building  of  the  Panama  Canal.  If  the  United  States 
is  to  realize  what  it  should  from  this  great  undertaking,  it  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  improve  the  waterways  of  this  country.  If  we 
do  not  do  so,  we  are  practically  building  that  great  canal  for  the 
use  of  foreign  nations.  The  improvement  of  our  internal  water- 
ways will  enable  us  to  compete  with  foreign  nations  for  the  trade 
of  that  great  country  south  of  us,  where  we  make  such  a  poor 
showing  to-day.  With  improved  w-aterways  and  the  Panama  Canal, 
we  are  in  touch  with  the  rich  trade  of  the  Orient,  the  prize  of 
commerce  for  thousands  of  years.  The  last  fifty  vears  have  been 
the  most  wonderful  in  achievement  in  the  history  of  the  world. 
Those  fifty  years  cover  the  life  of  Kansas  City  and  the  great  West. 
The  achievement  of  those  brief  years  is  but  an  earnest  of  what 
may  be  accomplished  in  the  future.  The  West  asks  that  it  may  be 
allowed  to  use  the  great  resources'  wath  w'hich  it  has  been  endowed 
by  nature. 


COLUMBIA  RIVER  IMPROVEiMENT  AND  THE  PACIFIC 

NORTHWEST. 


By  Frederic  G.  Young, 

Secretary   of   Oregon    Historical    Society    and    Professor   of   Economics    and 

Sociology,  University  of  Oregon,  Eugene,  Ore. 


A  system  of  transportation,  adjusted  to  the  needs  of  the 
Pacific  Northwest,  can  hardly  be  a  cotniterpart  of  those  developed 
for  the  older  sections  of  the  country  on  the  opposite  and  less-folded 
side  of  the  continent.  The  specific  conclusions,  with  regard  to  the 
supplementary  functions  and  to  other  relations  of  the  rail  and  the 
water  routes  found  true  throughout  the  East  will  probably  need 
modification  before  being  applied  here.  At  any  rate,  the  conditions 
in  the  Pacific  Northwest  that  have  to  be  taken  into  account  for 
determining  the  features  of  the  most  economical  and  efficient  system 
of  transportation  for  this  region  are  so  striking  and  unique  as  to 
warrant  a  brief  reference  to  them. 

The  highways  over  which  the  productions  of  the  Pacific  North- 
west must  be  carried  to  reach  the  consumer  lie  on  the  Pacific  in 
one  direction,  and  stretch  across  the  backbone  of  the  continent 
in  another.  These  opposite  destinations  for  fairly  equal  propor- 
tions of  its  grain,  lumber,  fish,  livestock,  wool  and  fruit  afifect  the 
features  of  the  transportation  system  adapted  to  its  needs  and 
differentiate  this  system  from  that  of  the  Middle  West,  whose 
products  almost  exclusively  find  their  market  in  the  direction  of 
the  Atlantic  seaboard. 

Again,  the  striking  contrasts  between  the  lay  of  the  land  in 
the  Coltnnbia  basin  and  that  of  the  basin  of  the  Mississippi  must, 
in  the  nature  of  things,  exhibit  themselves  in  contrasting  systems 
of  transportation  when  these  have  become  fully  adapted  to  their 
respective  conditions.  On  the  imperceptibly  sloping,  almost  un- 
broken and  but  gently  undulating,  plains  of  the  Mississippi  and  the 
Missouri  the  problem  of  providing  economic  means  for  carrying 
the  commodities  of  commerce  is  quite  dififerent  from  that  presented 
by  a  region  largely  composed  of  table  lands,  here  and  there  fur- 
rowed by  deep  valleys  with  precipitous   slopes,   and  bordered  by 

(189) 


IQO  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

high    ranges   of   mountains    stretched   directly   across   the   path   of 
the  routes  leading  out  to  the  markets  of  the  world. 

The  lines  of  least  resistance  for  traffic  are  more  pronounced 
in  the  Columbia  basin  than  in  any  portion  of  the  East.  The  uni- 
form meshes  of  the  railway  net-work  of  the  Mississippi  Valley 
will  hardly  be  realized  here  and  for  other  reasons  than  a  lack  of 
uniform  productivity  throughout  all  portions  of  this  basin.  The 
longer  way  around  will,  in  this  region,  more  frequently  be  found 
the  more  economic  route  to  the  market.  Until  release  is  found 
from  the  pull  of  gravity  so  that  the  lifts  and  drops  in  passing 
over  intervening  ridges  do  not  involve  heavy  costs,  the  main  lines 
of  railway  here  will  thread  the  main  valleys.  This  means  that 
even  in  the  matter  of  distance  the  water  routes  for  heavy  traffic 
will  be  at  but  slight  disadvantage  here  as  compared  with  the  rail ; 
add  to  this  the  fact  that  the  Columbia  "seeks  the  ocean  on  a  line 
parallel  with  the  trade  channels  and  not  at  right  angles  to  them," 
as  is  the  case  with  the  Mississippi  in  relation  to  the  major  portion 
of  the  volume  of  trade  of  its  valley ;  and  the  further  facts  that 
have  repeated  endorsement  of  the  engineers  of  the  national  govern- 
ment, that  the  banks  of  the  Columbia  "are  more  stable,  its  waters 
more  clear,  its  ice  blockades  are  much  less  in  duration  than  on  the 
great  waterway  in  the  East,"  and  we  have  something  of  a  basis 
for  the  presumption  that  transportation  on  inland  waterways  in 
the  Pacific  Northwest  is  destined  permanently  to  assume  a  com- 
parativelv  larger  importance  than  in  any  other  section  of  the  coun- 
trv,  and  that  the  improvement  of  these  waterways  so  as  to  realize 
their  largest  utility  is  a  matter  of  more  vital  interest  to  its  people 
than  to  those  of  any  other  section.  In  all  this  we  have  grounds 
for  a  tentative  hypothesis  at  least  that  the  ensemble  of  conditions 
in  the  Pacific  Northwest  are  unusually  favorable  for  reliance  upon 
waterways  as  routes  for  heavier  traffic  and  unusually  obstructive 
to  the  development  of  a  net-work  of  air-line  rail  routes  with  easy 
gradients. 

Before  developing  this  hypothesis,  through  reference  to  the 
experience  of  the  Pacific  Northwest,  while  securing  so  much  of 
a  system  as  it  has,  attention  should  be  called  to  one  other  aspect 
of  the  situation  here.  The  Pacific  Northwest  is  conspicuously  a 
gateway  for  the  commerce  between  the  main  body  of  the  American 
people   in   the   eastern    portions   of   the   country   and   the   Orient. 


Columbia  River  Improvement  191 

Three  factors  conspire  to  bring  this  about.  It  is  on  the  Hne  of 
the  great-circle  route  to  the  East,  it  has  the  only  sea-level  passage- 
way through  the  Cascade-Sierra  barrier  on  the  western  edge  of 
the  continent,  and  it  possesses  the  matchless  harbors  of  Puget 
Sound.  The  transcontinental  lines  penetrating  to  this  region  were 
located,  built,  and  have  ever  since  been  operated,  with  their  gate- 
way interests  dominant.  Even  to-day  the  greater  construqtion 
activities  and  expenditures  for  the  Hill  and  the  Harriman  roads — a 
Hill  road  paralleling  the  Harriman  line  down  the  Columbia  to 
Portland,  and  a  Harriman  road  paralleling  the  Hill  line  from 
Portland  to  Seattle — show  that  the  interests  of  the  producer  of  this 
region  are  neglected  and  even  sacrificed  in  the  rivalry  for  the  gate- 
way traffic.  The  local  producer  has  received  some  consideration  at 
times  from  these  transcontinental  railway  magnates.  A  meager 
provision  of  "feeders"  exists.  Some  have  built  more  than  others, 
but  with  all  and  always  competition  in  the  transcontinental  service 
has  been  the  main  concern. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  no  independent  lines  for  the  service  of  the 
producer  of  the  Pacific  Northwest  exist.  While  the  Oregon  Rail- 
way and  Navigation  lines  and,  in  a  less  degree,  the  Oregon  and 
California  line,  were  originally  planned  for  local  service  they  soon, 
through  lease  and  purchase,  became  mere  links  in  transcontinental 
systems.  There  is  thus  in  a  large  sense  no  system  of  rail  trans- 
portation for  the  Pacific  Northwest.  As  it  is,  the  people  of  this 
section  get  the  crumbs  of  service  and  have  laid  on  their  shoulders 
through  high  charges  the  great  burden  of  the  support  of  the  sys- 
tems as  carriers  of  transcontinental  traffic. 

This  situation  would  make  the  plight  of  the  producer  of  the 
Pacific  Northwest  extreme  were  it  not  for  his  advantages  in  the 
wonderful  natural  resources  at  his  command.  Suppose  the  haul 
across  the  Rockies  is  a  natural  one  for  part  of  even  his  bulky  grain 
and  lumber.  Yet  the  carrying  capacity  of  these  roads  is  so  help- 
lessly over-taxed  that  they  are  under  the  necessity  of  rejecting 
consignments,  indirectly  by  exorbitant  charges  and  directly  by 
refusing  to  furnish  cars,  as  is  witnessed  at  the  present  time  in  the 
embargo  on  the  lumber  export  business  to  the  Middle  West. 
Increased  equipment  and  double-tracking  are  out  of  the  question 
under  existing  financial  conditions.  Should  the  managing  agencies 
of  these  railway  systems   redeem   themselves   in  the   eyes  of  the 


192  TJie  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

people  and  win  confidence  so  that  with  funds  at  their  command 
they  could  bring  the  carr3ing  powers  of  their  roads  up  to  the 
demands  made  upon  them,  still  the  producer  of  this  region  would 
still  be  at  the  mercy  of  those  who  have  pretty  consistently  ignored 
him  except  as  he  might  obtain  relief  through  the  mediation  of  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission  or,  more  effectively,  through 
independent  means   for  getting  his  productions  down  to  the  sea. 

The  release  of  the  producing  energies  of  this  region  from 
the  vise-like  grip  in  which  they  are  held  by  the  systems  of  rail 
transportation  as  at  present  developed  would  be  fully  achieved 
if  a  system  of  inland  waterways  for  traffic  needs  could  be  made 
available.  On  these  the  annual  output  of  products  could,  free 
from  the  taxing  power  of  monopolies,  be  floated  down  to  the  ocean- 
shipping  ports.  The  rates  of  carriage  on  such  waterways  would 
regulate  not  only  the  charges  on  the  rail  routes  parallel  to  them 
but  also  the  rates  on  the  transcontinental  carriage  to  the  East. 
There  is  no  question  as  to  the  need  of  them  here.  In  no  other 
section  are  present  transportation  facilities  so  inadequate  to  exist- 
ing demands.  Car  famines  recur  regularly  and  in  most  aggravated 
forms.  No  other  section  is  taxed  so  heavily  for  what  service  it 
gets.  Nowhere  else  is  potential  development  being  retarded  to 
the  same  degree. 

The  problem  of  progress  for  this  section  narrows  down  to 
about  this:  Is  it  feasible  to  utiHze  fully  through  improvement  the 
Columbia  and  its  tributary  waterways  to  relieve  this  congestion 
of  traffic  and  so  cheapen  transportation  costs  as  to  stimulate  vastly 
the  development  of  this  section?  Before  turning  to  an  examina- 
tion of  the  availability  of  the  Columbian  waterways,  just  one 
observation  on  the  results  of  further  delay  in  undertaking  a  scien- 
tific adjustment  of  these  transportation  facilities  seems  advisable. 
The  present  condition  of  perplexingly  inadequate  facilities,  and 
monopolv  charges  prohibitive  of  further  development,  naturally 
raises  an  unreasoning  clamor  for  duplications  in  hopes  of  lower 
rates  through  competition.  This  betrays  a  state  of  intelligence 
that  is  unmindful  of  the  fact  that  the  cost  and  maintenance  of 
great  railway  structures,  that  serve  only  to  divide  traffic  with  a 
road  alreadv  existing,  mean  fastening  upon  its  supporters  a  load 
almost  the  double  of  what  would  have  been  necessary  had  the 
service   of   the   existing   line   been   co-ordinated    with   that   of   an 


Columbia  River  hnprovcment  193 

available  waterway.  Fortunately,  however,  the  measure  of  un- 
developed resources  here  protects  this  region,  too,  from  such  per- 
manent incubuses  much  as  eastern  sections  through  their  develop- 
ment escaped  evils  of  excessive  duplications.  Surely  a  clearer 
conception  on  the  part  of  the  people  at  large  of  what  is  involved 
in  a  scientifically  adjusted  transportation  system  would  have  fore- 
stalled the  possibility  of  such  a  transaction  as  Mr,  Harriman's  in 
diverting  the  thirteen  millions  from  the  surplus  accumulated 
through  extortionate  charges  upon  the  producers  in  the  Oregon 
Railway  and  Navigation  territory,  towards  the  securing  of  terminals 
in  Tacoma  and  Seattle  for  his  line  paralleling  the  road  from  Port- 
land to  Seattle.  And  certain  it  is  that  the  people  of  the  Pacific 
Northwest  if  they  fail  to  make  a  careful  inquiry  into  the  problem 
of  supplying  themselves  with  an  adequate  and  an  economic  sys- 
tem of  transportation  will  burden  themselves  and  their  posterity 
with  ill-adapted  railway  duplications  and  will  continue  to  serve 
as  pawns  for  the  railway  magnates  in  their  game  for  the  prizes 
of  transcontinental  traffic. 

In  the  general  survey  of  the  situation  in  the  Pacific  North- 
west it  was  noticed  that  the  lay  of  the  land  and  the  characteristics 
of  the  waterways  of  this  region  indicated  large  utilization  of  them 
for  purposes  of  commerce.  The  safest  and  probably  the  quickest 
way  to  determine  what  part  and  how  large  a  part  these  waterways 
are  adapted  to  have  in  a  fully  adjusted  system  of  transportation 
for  this  region  is  to  trace  the  development  of  man's  experience  in 
using  them  and  the  growth  of  his  plans  and  achievements  in  im- 
proving them.  P)arring  a  few  formidable  obstructions,  the  major 
portion  of  which  have  already  been  obviated  and  all  of  which  are 
at  a  reasonable  expense  susceptible  of  being  permanently  obviated, 
the  Columbia  River  throughout  its  course  approximates  more  nearly 
the  character  of  a  ship-canal  than  probably  any  other  river  in  the 
world.  The  Canadian  Pacific  has  run  boats  on  regular  schedules 
■  on  its  uppermost  stretch,  penetrating  even  to  its  source,  some 
sixteen  hundred  miles  from  its  mouth.  Much  as  PTenry  Hud- 
son on  his  voyage  of  discovery  sailed  up  the  river  that  took  his 
name  to  where  Albany  now  stands,  so  Lieutenant  Brough- 
ton,  of  Vancouver's  expedition,  profiting  through  introduction 
of  Captain  Gray,  pushed  the  limits  of  discovery  with  his  vessel 
to  a  point  near  the  Cascade  Mountains,  one  hundred  miles  up 
stream.  « 


194  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

Though  the  initial  cost  of  obtaining  an  "open  river"  through- 
out the  main  stream  and  the  important  tributaries  will  be  considera- 
ble the  permanency  of  such  improvements  and  the  smallness  of  the 
sums  necessary  for  maintenance  more  than  compensate.  Such  is 
the  general  firmness  of  its  banks  (not  a  little  of  its  course  is  run 
between  walls  of  basalt),  such  is  the  comparative  freedom  from 
the  silt  that  causes  erosion  and  shifting  bars,  and  so  short  are  the 
periods  when  it  is  locked  by  ice,  that  its  adaptability  as  a  water- 
wav  for  purposes  of  commerce  may  be  rated  very  high. 

It  was  the  judgment  of  John  Jacob  Astor,  or  his  representa- 
tive, in  establishing  Fort  Astor,  in  1811,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia,  that  the  emporium  should  be  there  for  commerce  with 
the  Orient.  A  little  more  than  a  decade  later  that  judgment  was 
dissented  from  by  the  sagacious  ?^IcLoughlin  of  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company.  He  moved  the  entrepot  of  trade  a  hundred  miles 
up  the  river.  His  idea,  in  so  far  as  it  afifects  the  use  of  this  lower 
stretch  as  an  arm  of  the  sea,  seems  destined  to  stand.  It  has  not 
merely  the  sanction  implied  in  the  building  up  of  a  city  of  200,000 
people  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  lower  Willamette,  txvelve 
miles  up  from  its  junction  with  the  Columbia,  but  also  a  hearty 
seconding  in  the  plans  and  projects  of  the  engineering  service  direct- 
ing river  and  harbor  improvements.  The  consideration  that 
weighed  with  Dr.  McLoughlin  in  establishing  Fort  Vancouver  near 
the  region  whence  was  obtained  his  company's  wealth  of  commerce 
holds  good  to-day.  The  ocean  liner  is  brought  for  its  cargo  as  near 
as  possible  to  the  heart  of  a  large  and  rich  producing  country. 
The  improvement,  therefore,  of  the  Willamette  and  Columbia 
below  Portland  is  virtually  of  the  nature  of  harbor  improve- 
ment while  that  contemplated  for  the  river  above  and  its  tribu- 
taries is  that  of  inland  waterway  improvement. 

That  the  waterways  of  the  Columbia  basin  had  eminent  nat- 
ural fitness  as  avenues  of  commerce  and  travel  is  conclusively ; 
proven  in  the  flourishing  economic  development  of  this  region 
in  the  pre-railway  era.  Up  to  aliout  1880,  the  Columbia  River 
with  its  tributaries  constituted  the  only  trunk  lines  of  inland  com- 
merce and  travel  in  the  Pacific  Northwest.  The  facilities  of  trans- 
portation afforded  by  these  waterways  had  sufficed  for  the  upbuild- 
ing of  a  very  prosperous  community.  Some  three  hundred  thousand 
people  were  in  the  valley  of  the  Willamette  and  along  the  lower 


Coluinbia  River  Imf'roirinciit  195 

and  upper  Columbia.  Evidences  of  a  high  degree  of  comfort, 
of  large  accumulations  and  of  the  great  volume  of  commercial 
activity  elicited  remarks  of  astonishment  from  visitors  to  this  iso- 
lated region  that  was  then  still  practically  without  railroads.  It  is 
safe  to  say  that  no  other  river  system  since  the  era  of  general 
railway  development  served  so  fully  the  needs  of  transportation 
facilities  as  did  this  one  of  the  Pacific  Northwest. 

But  the  inland  waterways  of  the  Pacific  Northwest  were  like 
those  of  the  other  sections  of  the  coimtry  destined  to  be  relegated 
to  a  position  secondary  to  that  of  the  railways.  Only  the  one- 
hundred-and-ten-mile  stretch  from  Portland  to  the  sea  suffered 
no  eclipse  through  being  paralleled  by  a  railroad.  This  section 
of  river  channel  is,  however,  in  its  relation  to  navigation,  to  be 
regarded  as  an  arm  of  the  sea,  or  harbor  passageway,  rather  than 
as  an  inland  waterway.  The  general  supersession  of  the  water- 
way for  the  railway  might  seem  to  be  significant  of  the  greater 
all-around  utility  of  the  railway  in  this  section,  for  it  appeared  to 
displace  the  well-established  steamboat  completely  on  certain  routes 
and,  for  aught  that  appears  on  the  surface,  finally.  But  it  is 
to  be  noted  that  the  introduction  of  the  railway  into  this  section 
was  not  primarily  to  furnish  facilities  of  a  higher  order  than  those 
of  the  existing  waterways.  They  were  built  here  not  so  much  to 
supersede  the  unsatisfactory  steamboat  as  they  were  to  earn  munif- 
icent grants  of  public  domain  and  to  supply  the  final  links  in  the 
transcontinental  lines  giving  connection  with  the  East.  For  passen- 
ger and  higher  class  freight  service  the  railroad,  here  as  elsewhere, 
had,  of  course,  the  advantage  from  the  start.  The  railways  along 
the  Willamette  and  the  Columbia  won  out  so  decisively,  however, 
from  quite  extraneous  reasons.  The  falls  and  formidable  rapids 
in  these  rivers  that  made  necessary  short  side  canals  or  portage 
railways  furnish  the  secret  of  this  easy  conquest  on  the  part  of 
the  railways.  These  portage  improvements  were  owned  either 
by  private  corporations  or  by  the  railroads  themselves.  At  the 
falls  of  the  Willamette,  fifteen  miles  above  Portland,  a  private 
canal  company  with  its  tolls  taxed  the  river  traffic  nearly  out  of 
existence.  On  the  Columbia  the  owners  of  the  portage  railways  were 
also  the  owners  of  the  railroad  paralleling  the  river.  Naturally  it 
was  their  interest  and,  from  their  position  of  vantage,  within  their 
power  to  block  completely  the  movement  of  traffic  on  the  river. 


ic)6  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

Water  iransportation  was  not,  however,  to  lapse  into  a  mere 
tradition  in  the  Columbia  basin  because  of  the  untoward  influence 
of  private  monopoly  at  these  portage  gateways.     Considerable  areas 
of  rich  and  rapidly  developing  country  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Columbia  had  as  yet  no  railway  and  kept  several  lines  of  boats 
busy.     Another  section  of  country  far  up  the  Snake,  but  magnifi- 
cently endowed  with  resources,  was  not  for  a  long  time  reached 
by  a  railway.     It,  too,  had  to  rely  on  a  navigable  section  of  that 
largest  tributary  of  the  Columbia  for  connection  with  the  outside 
world.     The  mere  idea,  too,  of  a  great  Columbian  waterway  had 
been  ardently  cherished  for  more  than  a  century  and  had  too  firm 
a  hold  in  the  national  consciousness  to  be  completely  stifled  by  the 
repression  of  private  monopoly.     As  the  dream  of  Thomas  Jeffer- 
son it  had  been  back  of  the  leading  motive  impelling  him  to  urge 
time   and   again   transcontinental   exploration.     In   his   instructions 
to  Meriwether  Lewis,  when  the  Lewis  and  Clark  expedition  was 
about  to  set  out,  he  says:  "The  object  of  your  mission  is  to  explore 
the  Missouri  River,  and  such  principal  streams  of  it,  as  by  its  course 
and  communication  with  the  waters  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  may  offer 
the  most  direct  and  practicable  water  communication   across   this 
continent,  for  purposes  of  commerce."     The  same  idea  of  the  larger 
use  of  the  Columbia  as  one  of  the  two  connecting  channels  of  a 
transcontinental   waterway  had  been   an  important   feature  of  the 
imperial   project   of   John   Jacob   Astor.      And   the    Hudson    Bay 
Company  had  actually  used  it  for  a  generation  as  its  main  high- 
w^ay  in  conducting  its  widely  extended  operations  in  this  section. 
It  had,  as  we  have  seen,  been  the  sole  reliance  in  their  need  of 
transportation    facilities   of   the   widely    scattered   but    exceedingly 
thriving  Oregon  communities   down  to  about   1880.     And  though 
the   railways,   fortified   as  they   were  with  monopoly  privileges   at 
the  portages  along  the  Columbia,  and  reinforced  through  the  policy 
of  the  private   canal   company   at   Oregon   City,   won   out   against 
the  upper  river  traffic ;  on  the  lower  Columbia  the  ocean  export  trade 
was  steadily  growing  with  the  general  community  growth  induced 
by  the  recently  completed  railway  connections  with  the  East. 

But  whether  the  commerce  on  the  different  sections  of  the 
river  waxed  or  waned,  certain  influences  were  promoting  the  incep- 
tion of  projects  of  improvement.  The  pressure  of  the  people  in  this 
direction   and   the  activities   of  their   representatives   in   Congress 


CoIiDiibia  River  Improvement  197 

may  always  be  taken  for  granted.  It  is  rather  the  progress  of 
their  interests  with  the  engineers  of  the  United  States  army  and 
the  standing  the  movement  was  thus  getting  in  administrative 
circles  to  which  I  refer.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  the  charts 
of  Admiral  Vancouver,  of  1792,  that  of  Sir  Edward  Belcher, 
of  1839,  that  of  Captain  Wilkes,  of  1841,  the  United  Coast  Survey 
chart  of  185 1,  and  those  from  periodical  surveys  thereafter  accumu- 
lated data  from  which  the  problem  of  widening  and  deepening  the 
channel  across  the  bar  could  be  solved.  The  tonnage  crossing  the 
bar  was  increasing  year  by  year.  In  1882  the  engineers  were  ready 
with  the  details  of  a  project  for  permanently  improving  this  feature 
of  the  river.  The  value  and  availability  of  the  waterway  from 
Portland  down  could  never  be  questioned.  Its  improvement  to 
navigation  by  deep-water  craft  was  of  utmost  importance  to  the 
entire  Northwest.  Not  until  1884  was  any  considerable  portion 
of  the  produce  of  this  section  diverted  by  the  railroads  to  Puget 
Sound.  The  original  project  for  improvement  was  adopted  in 
1877. 

On  the  upper  river  the  engineers  were  making  extensive  prc- 
liminarv  examinations  and  reconnaissance  surveys  while  it  was  still 
the  sole  channel  of  transportation  for  that  rapidly  developing 
"Inland  Empire."  The  exceedingly  favorable  reports  of  Major 
Michler,  of  1874,  of  Major  Powell,  in  1879,  and  of  Lieutenant 
Symons,  in  1881,  gave  the  demand  for  an  "open  river"  standing 
in  the  inner  administration  circles.  This  part  of  the  river  was 
already  receiving  small  appropriations  for  the  removal  of  minor 
obstructions  in  the  early  seventies.  On  October  12,  1877,  the  Secre- 
tary of  War  approved  the  original  plan  for  canal  and  locks  around 
the  rapids  in  the  Columbia,  where  it  passes  through  the  Cascade 
Mountain  Range.  In  thus  tackling  one  of  the  two  formidable 
obstructions  to  navigation  the  national  government  may  be  said  to 
have  committed  itself  to  the  securing  of  a  channel  available  to 
navigation  throughout  this  system  of  inland  waterways. 

The  task  with  which  the  national  government  was  confronted 
in  having  undertaken  to  secure  to  the  people  of  the  Pacific  North- 
west the  advantage  of  inland  waterways  is  jirobably  best  indicated 
by  pointing  out  the  obstructions  that  are,  or  were,  encountered 
in  passing  from  its  mouth  to  its  source.  From  the  ocean  up  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Willamette,  about  ninctv-cight  miles,  where  the  origi- 


198  The  Annals  of  the  Ainericaii  Academy 

nal  depth  was  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet,  ocean  vessels  now  pass 
drawing  twenty-five  feet  of  water.  The  improvement  was  effected 
mainly  through  dredging.  From  the  mouth  of  the  Willamette  to  the 
"Cascades,"  about  forty-three  miles  farther  up  the  river,  it  is  open, 
and  in  its  natural  state  has  an  available  depth  of  eight  feet.  At 
the  "Cascades"  for  four  and  one-half  miles  it  is  so  contracted  in 
width  in  passing  through  mountains  that  it  partakes  of  the  nature 
of  a  gorge.  In  the  upper  first  half  mile  of  this  there  is  a  fall  of 
twenty-four  feet.  Throughout  the  lower  four  miles  of  the  gorge 
the  slope  is  not  so  steep,  but  the  channel  is  much  obstructed  with 
boulders  and  reefs.  This  first  great  obstruction  could  be  obviated 
only  by  a  canal  and  locks.  Such  works  were  so  far  completed  as 
to  be  opened  to  navigation  in  1896.  Proceeding  up  the  river,  for 
forty-five  miles,  it  was  again  open  with  a  depth  of  some  eight  feet. 
But  here  most  formidable  obstructions  are  encountered — The  Dalles 
and  Celilo  Falls.  In  the  course  of  nine  miles  the  river  passes  over 
falls  and  rapids  and  through  contracted  channels  that  completely 
block  navigation.  The  fall  in  this  distance  is  eighty-one  feet.  For 
some  years  these  obstructions  seemed  to  puzzle  the  engineers  with 
their  magnitude  and  to  appal  Congress  through  the  size  of  the  esti- 
mated cost  of  improvement  to  open  navigation  around  them.  A\^ork 
has  barely  begun  on  an  approved  project  for  a  canal  and  locks. 
Proceeding  on  beyond  Celilo  Falls  we  have  again  a  stretch  of  open 
river  of  some  198  miles,  with  an  available  depth  of  four  or  five  feet. 
The  Snake,  the  largest  tributary,  which  enters  the  Columbia  no 
miles  above  Celilo  Falls,  has  146  miles  of  navigable  channel  similar 
in  character  to  that  of  the  main  stream.  Were  we  to  proceed  along 
that  tremendous  stretch  of  river  until  we  came  to  the  international 
boundary  only  two  more  considerable  obstructions  would  be  encoun- 
tered—Priest Rapids  and  Kettle  Falls.  These  will  require  canals 
and  locks.  Not  only  are  improvements  in  progress  on  the  two  main 
tributaries  above  the  mouth  of  the  Snake,  the  Spokane  and  the 
Pend  Oreille,  but  the  engineers  have  reported  favorably  for  the 
removal  of  the  obstructions  in  about  all,  if  not  quite  all,  of  the 
stretches  intervening  between  those  more  formidable  rapids  that 
will  require  canals  and  locks. 

Turning  back  now  to  the  Willamette  to  note  its  problems,  a 
complete  break  in  navigation— when  the  river  was  in  its  natural 
state — was  encountered  at  the  falls  fifteen  miles  above  Portland. 


Columbia  River  Improvement  199 

A  private  corporation,  subsidized  by  the  State  of  Oregon,  con- 
structed a  canal  around  these. 

Confronted  by  problems  of  the  character  indicated  above  the 
national  government  has  made  and,  on  the  recommendations  of  its 
engineers,  proposes  to  make  improvements  at  different  points  of 
the  following  nature:  With  the  object  of  concentrating  the  river 
to  a  moderate  width  at  its  mouth  and  to  discharge  it  as  a  unit  to 
the  sea,  thus  securing  a  strong  scouring  eft'ect  with  the  tidal  out- 
flow, the  original  project,  adopted  in  1884,  provided  for  a  single 
jetty  on  the  south  side  of  the  entrance  about  four  and  one-half  miles 
long.  This  work  caused  an  increase  in  depth  over  the  bar  from 
twenty  to  thirty-one  feet  from  1885  to  1895.  ^^^^  as  this  desired 
increase  was  not  permanent,  in  1903  a  project  contemplating  an 
extension  of  three  miles,  to  the  jetty  previously  constructed,  was 
adopted.  A  continuing  appropriation  for  the  completion  of  this 
work  has  been  made.  The  depth  desired  is  forty  feet.  The  work 
from  the  beginning  of  the  original  project  to  the  completion  of  the 
present  extension  will  cost  about  $4,500,000.  The  two  projects 
were  based  on  the  same  conception  of  the  nature  of  the  problem 
and  the  earlier  work  is  fullv  utilized  in  the  more  extended  later 
project. 

The  project  under  which  the  improvement  of  the  Columbia 
and  lower  Willamette  is  proceeding  was  adopted  in  1902.  It  pro- 
poses a  twenty-five-foot  channel  to  the  sea  by  the  construction  of 
controlling  works  and  dredging.  The  estimated  cost  was  about 
$2,800,000.  The  port  of  Portland,  using  funds  obtained  from  tax- 
ation in  Portland,  has  co-operated  to  the  extent  of  providing  about 
$1,700,000.  Up  to  June  30,  1904,  the  national  government  had  ap- 
plied about  $1,500,000  on  this  portion  of  the  river.  Turning  to  the 
main  lower  branch  of  the  Columbia,  the  Willamette,  the  situation 
calls  either  for  the  purchase  of  the  existing  canal  and  locks  at  the 
falls  from  a  private  corporation  or  the  construction  of  a  new  systeni 
of  locks  and  canal.  The  board  of  engineers  that  investigated  this 
matter  in  1899  recommended  an  expenditure  of  $456,000,  either  for 
the  acquiring  of  the  present  canal  and  locks,  or  the  building  of  new 
ones.  The  corporation  owning  the  existing  improvements  declines 
to  sell  at  the  valuation  placed  upon  them  by  the  board  of  engineers, 
though  the  board  arrived  at  its  figures  through  capitalization  of  the 
net  earnings  from  the  canal  at  fair  rate  of  interest  as  well  as  by 


2CX) 


The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 


estimates  based  on  cost  of  reconstruction.  Though  these  locks  were 
built  thirty-five  years  ago  (the  state  furnishing  $200,000,  about 
two-thirds  of  the  cost  of  construction),  the  legislature  of  Oregon, 
in  1907,  appropriated  $300,000  "contingent  upon  the  United  States 
appropriating  the  sum  of  $300,000,  or  a  sum  sufficient  to  acquire 
bv  purchase,  condemnation,  or  construction,"  a  canal  around  the 
falls  at  this  place.  In  the  Willamette,  above  these  falls,  the  prob- 
lem of  improvement  is  quite  similar  to  that,  say,  of  the  Illinois  River. 
The  Willamette  drains  the  bed  of  a  former  arm  of  the  ocean  and 
has  not  the  firm  banks  of  the  upper  Columbia  and  its  tributaries. 
These  represent  channels  worn  in  a  sheet  of  lava  that  was  univer- 
sally spread  over  that  region.  Something  like  half  a  million  has 
been  used  on  the  upper  Willamette  and  its  tributaries,  mainly  in 
dredging  and  snagging,  in  other  words,  in  maintenance. 

At  the  cascades  the  project  that  was  adopted  in  1877  was  not 
completed  in  modified  form,  so  as  to  be  open  to  navigation,  until 
1896.     It  has  cost  some  $4,000,000,  and  provides  for  the  passage 
of  boats  of  a  maximum  draft  of  seven  feet.     But  to  open  the  river 
at  the  cascades  without  opening  it  at  The  Dalles-Celilo  obstructions, 
forty-five  miles  above,  answers  comparatively  little  purpose.     The 
"Inland  Empire"  lies  on  beyond  Celilo  Falls.     The  problem  pre- 
sented by  these   latter   obstructions   seems   to  have   quite   appalled 
the  earlier  engineers.     Several  projects  have  in  turn  been  recom- 
mended   for    overcoming    these    obstructions.      The    first    contem- 
plated a  canal  and  locks  and  some  straightening  of  the  river  at  an 
estimated  cost  of  over  $10,000,000.     A  plan  for  a  boat  railway  was 
next  adopted  and  appropriations  were  even  made  for  entering  upon 
the  construction  of  it.     It  was  expected  to  cost  $3,000,000.     The 
river  men  objected  and  the  engineers  do  not  seem  to  have  been 
quite  sure  of  its  practicability.     The  project  that  now  stands  con- 
templates a  continuous  canal  sixty-five  feet  wide  at  the  bottom  and 
eight  feet  deep.     The  canal  is  to  have  four  locks  and  is  estimated 
to  cost  something  over  $4,000,000.     As  the  Secretary  of  War  con- 
ditioned  the  beginning  of  work  upon  it  upon   the  United   States 
securing  the  right  of  way  free  of  cost,  the  State  of  Oregon  pur- 
chased the  right  of  way  at  a  cost  of  $70,000  and  conveyed  it  to  the 
United  States.     In  order  to  obtain  some  relief  for  the  producers 
in  the  region  above  this  point  from  the  exorbitant  freight  charges 
of  the  railways,  the  State  of  Oregon  had  also,  in  1906,  at  a  cost 
of  $165,000,  built  a  portage  railroad  around  the  obstructions. 


Columbia  River  Improvement  201 

The  improvements  in  the  main  river  and  its  tributaries  above 
Cehlo  Falls  consist  mainly  in  blasting  obstructing  rock  and  boulders, 
raking  gravel  bars  and  building  concentrating  dikes.  These  had, 
up  to  June,  1904,  cost  some  $300,000.  There  are  more  recent  re- 
conmiendations  for  additional  improvements  to  the  amount  of  $400,- 
000  more.  The  wisdom  of  having  as  much  as  possible  of  the 
upper  river  and  its  tributaries  in  good  navigable  condition  at  the 
time  of  the  completion  of  The  Dalles-Celilo  project  is  evident. 

The  effect  to  be  anticipated  from  an  "open  river"  on  freight 
charges  may  be  illustrated  in  several  ways.  The  present  rate  on 
wheat  fron:  Lewiston-Clarkson,  Idaho  (a  little  below  the  head  of 
navigation  on  the  Snake),  to  Portland  is  $5.20  per  ton.  A  most 
reliable  river  captain  holds  that  this  rate  would  be  reduced  to  a 
figure  between  $1.60  and  $2.10  per  ton.  As  the  rates  on  heavier 
commodities  along  the  Mississippi,  per  ton  mile,  are  about  one-tenth 
of  the  present  rail  rates  along  the  Snake  and  Columbia  waterways, 
such  an  estimate  seems  reasonable.  For  a  distance  of  eighty-eight 
miles,  from  Portland  to  The  Dalles,  the  rate  on  salt  is  $1.50  per  ton 
on  car-load  lots,  and  $3.00  on  less  than  car-load  lots.  The  corre- 
sponding figures  for  a  distance  100  miles  farther,  to  Umatilla,  where 
no  river  competition  exists,  are,  respectively,  $7.50  and  $12.00  per 
ton,  or  four  times  the  water  rates. 

The  area  drained  by  the  Columbia  and  its  tributaries  comprises 
some  250,000  square  miles.  While  there  is  more  waste  area  in  this 
than  in  an  equal  area  of  the  Mississippi  basin,  it  must  be  taken 
into  consideration  that  some  of  this  and  in  widely  separated  sections 
is  selling  at  $1,200  an  acre.  The  additional  value  that  will  be  given 
to  this  vast  area  by  an  "open  river"  will  make  the  cost  of  the 
improvements  of  the  Columbia  seem  very  small.  That  improve- 
ment will  call  into  active  operation  many  industries  that  wait  only 
for  the  presence  of  reasonable  transportation  facilities  to  spring 
into  life.  The  extension  of  irrigation  enterprises  will  only  equalize 
the  flow  of  the  streams  in  a  salutary  way  for  the  interests  of  navi- 
gation. With  the  waterways  of  the  Columbia  basin  open,  as  the 
expenditure  of  a  reasonable  sum  will  suffice  to  improve  them,  the 
Pacific  Northwest  will  probably  equal  in  wealth  any  other  most 
favored  section  of  like  area  in  the  country. 

With  the  projected  improvements  completed,  and  a  few  more 
minor  ones  on  the  upper  Columbia,  the  Pacific  Northwest  would 


202  TJic  Ajiiials  of  the  .lincricaii  Academy 

have  transportation  facilities  comparable  with  those  that  will  be 
possessed  by  the  Trunk  line  territory  when  New  York's  project  for 
making-  a  ship-channel  of  the  Erie  Canal  is  completed.  What  the 
Pacific  Northwest  system  would  lack  in  the  size  of  cargo  it  could 
float  it  would  make  up  in  being  a  more  direct  route  and  in  being 
available  during  more  months  of  the  vear. 


RECLAMATION  OF  ARID  WEST  BY  FEDERAL 
GOVERNMENT 


By  Arthur  P.  Davis, 

Chief  Engineer  United  States  Reclamation  Service. 


When  the  President  approved,  on  June  17,  1902,  a  bill  known 
as  the  Reclamation  Act,  the  United  States  entered  upon  a  policy 
of  internal  improvement  along  novel  lines.  Many  millions  have 
been  spent  upon  internal  improvements,  but  none  of  them  on  a 
commercial  basis,  that  is,  the  beneficiaries  of  the  expended  funds 
have  never  been  required  to  return  the  cost  of  the  improvements  as 
is  required  by  the  Reclamation  Act. 

The  preliminary  stage  of  survey  and  examination  for  the 
selection  of  projects  is  now  practically  passed.  The  second  stage 
of  construction  is  well  advanced  and  large  areas  of  land  have  been 
placed  under  irrigation.  The  third  stage,  that  of  settling  the  various 
projects  with  prosperous  settlers  and  collecting  from  them  the 
cost  of  the  works,  has  just  been  entered  upon.  The  novelty  of 
this  feature,  together  with  other  important  obstacles  constitutes 
this  third  stage  the  most  difficult  of  all. 

In  all,  twenty-six  projects  have  been  approved  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Interior  and  construction  has  commenced  on  twenty- 
five  of  these,  several  having  been  nearly  completed.  On  the  pas- 
sage of  the  law,  a  sum  of  money  amounting  to  nearly  $5,000,000 
was  made  immediately  available  by  the  terms  of  the  act.  During 
the  stage  of  organization,  survey,  and  examination,  the  expendi- 
tures were  relatively  light  and  the  fund  continued  to  accumulate 
under  the  provisions  of  the  law  by  the  sale  of  public  lands  in  the 
West.  As  construction  w^as  undertaken,  however,  the  expenditures 
increased,  and  as  new  projects  were  taken  up  the  increments  aug- 
mented until  now  the  accumulated  funds  have  practically  been 
exhausted,  and  during  the  future  years  the  outlay  will  probably 
be  governed  by  the  current  receipts  from  various  sources. 

(203) 


204  The  Atuials  of  the  .iuieriean  Aeadeuiy 

Salt  River  Project,  Arizona 

About  twenty  years  ago  began  a  series  of  years  of  unusually 
large  run-off  in  the  Salt  River  basin  in  Arizona.  The  successive 
high-water  periods,  showing  a  large  amount  of  surplus  run-ofif 
year  after  year,  attracted  public  attention  and  encouraged  the  con- 
struction of  canals  and  development  of  irrigation  until  these  enter- 
prises reached  far  beyond  the  capacity  of  the  river  in  ordinary 
years.  In  1898,  like  the  backward  swing  of  the  pendulum,  began 
a  series  of  unprecedented  dry  years,  the  run-ofT  for  several  years 
being  below  the  yield  during  the  recollection  of  the  oldest  inhab- 
itant. 

The  hot  arid  climate  makes  all  crops  absolutely  dependent 
upon  irrigation  in  this  region,  and  long-continued  drought  led  to 
the  death  of  large  and  valuable  orchards,  vineyards  and  alfalfa 
fields  upon  which  great  expenditures  had  been  made.  In  attempt- 
ing to  save  property  in  all  parts  of  the  valley  hardship  was  caused 
even  to  the  oldest  irrigators  with  the  best  water  rights.  Under 
these  circumstances  the  legislature  of  Arizona  provided  for  pre- 
liminary investigations  of  the  feasibility  of  water  storage  on  upper 
Salt  River,  which  were  carried  out  in  co-operation  with  the  Geo- 
logical Survey  in  1901.  A  large  and  feasible  reservoir  site  was 
surveyed  and  a  foundation  for  a  dam  explored  with  diamond 
drills. 

Unusual  difficulties  were  presented  by  the  isolation  of  the 
locality  and  the  extreme  roughness  of  the  surrounding  country, 
which  was  of  a  volcanic  origin  and  scored  by  profound  box  can- 
yons. Those  conditions  made  it  extremely  expensive  to  import 
large  quantities  of  heavy  articles,  such  as  cement  and  fuel.  Inves- 
tigations revealed  the  presence  of  suitable  materials  for  the  manu- 
facture of  cement  at  the  dam  site,  but  the  large  quantity  of  fuel 
required  for  the  necessary  power  for  manufacturing  the  cement 
and  building  the  dam  presented  great  difficulties.  The  little  wood 
that  was  available  was  scattered  and  of  poor  quality.  It  was  de- 
cided to  develop  water  power  by  diverting  the  river  and  carrying 
it  through  canals  and  tunnels  for  a  distance  of  about  eighteen  miles 
and  dropping  it  about  250  feet.  The  towns  of  Phoenix  and  Mesa 
co-operated  in  the  construction  of  a  road  by  issuing  over  $70,000 
in  bonds  for  the  purpose.  Fuel  oil  imported  from  California  is 
freighted  from  Mesa  over  this  road.     This  oil  is  used  in  the  kilns 


Reclamation  of  Arid  West  205 

for  burning  cement,  and   water  power  is   used  to  run  machinery 
in  the  cement  mill  and  to  handle  the  rock  and  mortar  for  the  dam. 

The  little  sand  that  occurs  in  this  vicinity  is  badly  mixed  with 
adobe  mud  and  is  of  very  poor  quality.  It  was  found  that  a  much 
higher  grade  of  sand  could  be  manufactured  by  crushing  dolomite, 
which  occurs  conveniently  near  the  dam  site,  and  a  mill  was  erected 
for  this  purpose.  In  the  foundations  of  the  various  mills  and  build- 
ings large  quantities  of  lime  were  used,  which  were  also  burned 
at  the  dam  site.  Such  works  as  those  always  require  large  quan- 
tities of  lumber  for  concrete  forms  and  temporary  works  of  various 
kinds.  It  was  found  feasible  to  install  a  saw-mill  in  the  neigh- 
boring mountains  for  this  purpose,  and  about  3,000,000  feet  of 
lumber  have  been  sawed  and  delivered  upon  the  work. 

The  dam  on  Salt  River  is  to  be  built  just  below  the  mouth 
of  Tonto  Creek,  where  the  river  flows  through  a  profound  gorge. 
From  foundation  to  coping  the  dam  will  be  about  280  feet  high, 
and  the  reservoir  will  have  a  capacity  of  about  1,300,000  acre  feet. 
The  power  developed  for  the  construction  of  the  dam  will,  after 
its  completion,  be  transferred  to  the  valley  for  pumping  water 
from  wells  to  increase  the  water  supply  for  irrigation.  Arrange- 
ments have  also  been  made  for  transferring  a  portion  of  this  power 
to  the  Gila  River  Indian  Reservation  for  supplying  the  Indians 
with  irrigation  water  by  pumping. 

The  contract  for  this  dam  was  let  to  James  O'Rourke  and  Com- 
pany, of  Galveston,  Texas,  in  April,  1905.  Since  the  contractor 
began  work  an  unprecedented  series  of  excessive  floods  have  greatly 
hampered  the  work,  having  washed  out  the  contractor's  cofi^er-dam 
four  successive  times  and  filled  up  excavated  portions  of  the  foun- 
dation. The  contractor  has.  however,  succeeded  in  placing  the 
foundation  in  the  river  and  bringing  the  upstream  portion  of  it 
to  the  top  of  his  cofifer-dam,  so  that  such  disasters  are  not  to  be 
feared  in  the  future. 

The  great  flood  of  November,  1905,  also  washed  out  the  Ari- 
zona Dam,  just  below  the  mouth  of  Verde  River,  which  served 
as  a  diversion  dam  for  the  Arizona  Canal  and  the  other  canals 
on  the  north  side  of  Salt  River.  This  north-side  system  was  pur- 
chased by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  with  reclamation  funds 
in  1906,  and  a  concrete  dam  for  diverting  water  into  it  is  being 
constructed  at  a  granite  reef,  below  the  old  Arizona  Dam.     The 


2o6  The  /liiiials  of  the  Auieriavi  Academy 

entire  canal  system  on  the  north  side  of  Salt  River,  serving  at 
present  over  60,000  acres  of  land,  is  heing  operated  by  the  recla- 
mation service,  a  temporary  dam  being  maintained  in  the  river  at 
the  head  of  the  canal,  pending  the  completion  of  the  concrete 
strtictiire  below. 

The  storage  system  under  construction  is  expected  to  serve 
an  area  of  180,000  acres  of  land  in  this  valley,  which  can  be  in- 
creased by  the  extension  of  pumping  development  with  the  power 
available  from  the  project  until  the  limit  of  the  underground  water 
supply  is  reached.  The  reservoir  dam  is  25  per  cent  completed. 
The  Granite  Reef  Dam  is  38  per  cent  completed.  The  Salt  River 
project  as  a  whole  is  62  per  cent  completed. 

Yuma  Project,   Arizona-California 

The  Yuma  project  provides  for  the  construction  of  a  diversion 
dam  across  Colorado  River  about  ten  miles  northeast  of  Yuma, 
Arizona.  From  this  diversion  dam  two  canals  will  be  built ;  the 
one  in  Arizona  to  cover  about  83,000  acres  of  land,  and  the  one  in 
California,  about  17,000  acres.  The  project  provides  for  an  effi- 
cient means  of  sluicing  out  the  head  of  the  canal  by  utilizing  the 
fall  secured  by  the  dam.  The  dam  will  have  a  total  length  of 
4.780  feet,  a  maximum  width  of  257  feet,  and  a  maximum  height 
of  19  feet.  The  work  on  the  dam  was  begun  July  20,  1905 ; 
but  the  contractors  made  slow  progress  and  it  was  finally  taken 
up  bv  the  government  under  force  account. 

One  of  the  chief  difficulties  encountered  was  the  transporta- 
tion of  fuel  and  other  supplies  from  the  railroad  to  the  dam  site. 
The  roads  were  very  bad  and  the  navigation  of  the  river  so  poor 
that  it  was  frequently  impossible  to  keep  the  machinery  supplied 
with  fuel.  It  is  now  the  intention  to  build  a  railroad  from  the 
main  line  of  the  Southern  Pacific  to  the  dam  site  on  the  California 
side  of  the  river.  As  soon  as  this  is  completed,  work  will  be 
actively  pushed  on  the  dam,  and  it  is  expected  that  some  water 
will  be  turned  into  canals  in  1908,  though  the  full  season's  supply 
cannot  be  furnished  until   1909. 

Orland  Project.  California 
The  Orland  project  contemplates  the  storage  of  water  in  the 
foothills  on  the  headworks  of  Stoncy  Creek  and  its  diversion  and 


Plate   II. — Main   south   canal,   Uncompahgre   Valley, 
section  through   clay  foothills. 


Lined  canal 


Reclamation  of  Arid  West  207 

use  in  the  vicinity  of  the  town  of  Orland,  CaHfornia.  Options 
have  been  obtained  for  the  rights  of  way  necessary  on  the  reservoir 
site  and  also  for  the  two  existing  ditches  near  Orland.  Negotia- 
tions are  completed  with  the  Central  Canal  and  Irrigation  Company, 
for  the  amicable  adjustment  of  claims  to  the  waters  of  Stoney  Creek, 
which  will  remove  all  complications  of  this  nature.  Prospects  are 
good  for  the  beginning  of  active  construction  during  the  year 
1908  for  the  irrigation  of  about  15,000  acres  of  land.  The  project, 
however,  is  susceptible  of  considerable  extension  beyond  this  point 
bv  the  utilization  of  other  reservoir  sites  and  by  pumping  water 
from  the  underground  supply.  This  project  is  regarded  as  an 
integral  part  of  the  general  development  of  the  Sacramento  Valley. 

iJiicoiiipaligrc  J 'alley  Project,  Colorado 

The  Uncompahgre  X'alley  in  Colorado  has  been  irrigated  for 
many  years,  and  the  development  of  irrigation  has  proceeded  be- 
yond the  available  water  supply  of  the  Uncompahgre  River,  some 
of  the  waters  originally  appropriated  having  been  diverted  by  later 
ditches  in  the  valley  above.  To  relieve  this  condition,  and  also 
to  bring  under  irrigation  a  large  area  of  land  in  the  valley  still 
unwatered,  the  Reclamation  Service  undertook  the  construction 
of  a  tunnel  through  the  mountain  range  to  bring  water  from  the 
Gunnison  River  into  the  Uncompahgre  Valley.  The  length  of  the 
tunnel  is  30,515  feet,  and  the  works  include  a  number  of  small 
tunnels  and  a  great  deal  of  heavy  construction  in  canals  through 
rough  country. 

The  contract  for  the  construction  of  the  main  tunnel  was  let, 
in  1904,  to  the  Taylor-Moore  Construction  Company,  but  financial 
difficulties  caused  its  abandonment  by  the  contractor  on  May  27, 
1905.  Since  that  time  it  has  been  prosecuted  by  day  labor  under 
the  engineers  of  the  Reclamation  Service.  The  work  has  presented 
a  great  many  difficulties.  For  a  considerable  distance  the  western 
half  of  the  tunnel  follows  almost  directly  under  the  bed  of  Cedar 
Creek,  which  is  composed  of  loose  sand,  gravel  and  mud.  In 
May,  1905,  this  channel  broke  through  the  contractor's  temporary 
timbering,  causing  an  extensive  cave-in  and  resulting  in  the  death 
of  six  persons.  In  August,  1907,  Cedar  Creek  broke  through  the 
lining  of  the  tunnel  at  two  dififerent  times  and  places,  bringing  in 
large  quantities  of  mud,  sand,  and  gravel,  and  causing  delay  to  the 


208  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

work.  No  one  was  injured  by  these  accidents,  however.  On  De- 
cember 22,  1906,  the  drills  in  the  west  heading  struck  a  strong 
flow  of  water  under  high  pressure,  discharging  about  seven  cubic 
feet  per  second,  and  heavily  charged  with  carbon  dioxide.  The  gas 
quickly  filled  the  tunnel  and  drove  the  men  out.  In  order  to  pro- 
perly ventilate  the  tunnel  thereafter  it  was  found  necessary  to 
sink  a  shaft  near  the  heading,  which  involved  a  shaft  of  about 
700  feet.  The  work  was  greatly  delayed  from  this  cause,  but  the 
water  was  drained  out  and  the  tunnel  was  cleared  of  gas  so  that 
work  was  again  resumed.  Smaller  quantities  of  gas  have  from 
time  to  time  been  struck  in  various  parts  of  the  tunnel,  causing 
danger  and  delay,  but  no  lives  have  been  lost  thereby.  On  July 
16,  1907,  a  heavy  flow  of  water  w^as  encountered  at  the  eastern 
heading,  which  flooded  the  machinery  and  drove  the  men  from 
work.  It  was  more  than  a  month  before  work  could  be  resumed 
at  this  heading.  Large  quantities  of  water  have  been  encountered 
from  time  to  time  in  both  headings,  always  causing  delay  and  heavy 
expense.  On  November  30  the  progress  of  excavating  this  tunnel 
was  as  follows : 

East  heading  7.933  feet 

West    heading    14,338    " 

Total    22,271  feet 

Lining    (tunnel    complete)    7,78i  feet 

Distance   between   headings    8,244 

The  Uncompahgre  Valley  project  was,  as  a  whole,  74  per 
cent  complete  on  the  above  date. 

Minidoka  Project,  Idaho 

The  Minidoka  project  diverts  water  from  Snake  River  near 
the  station  of  Minidoka,  Idaho.  About  60,000  acres  on  each  side 
of  the  river  will  be  irrigated  from  this  diversion  point  and  the 
canal  svstem  for  the  north  side  has  been  completed.  A  portion 
of  the  lands  on  the  south  lie  above  the  possibility  of  gravity  distri- 
bution, and  require  the  construction  of  a  large  dam  and  the  devel- 
opment of  power  which  can  be  made  available  at  the  dam  site.  The 
dam  w^as  constructed  by  the  Bates  and  Rogers  Construction  Com- 
pany, and  is  about  fifty  feet  high.    Water  from  this  system  was  deliv- 


o 


o 


>  = 


(X  c 


H 


Reclamation  of  Arid  West  209 

erecl  in  May  to  a  portion  of  the  land,  and  about  18,000  acres  have 
been  actually  cultivated.  All  the  public  land  for  which  water  is 
available  has  been  taken  and  extensive  improvements  have  been 
made  by  settlers. 

Payette-Boise  Project,  Idaho 

Payette-Boise  project  provides  for  the  storage  of  waters  of 
both  the  Payette  and  Boise  Rivers  by  storage  reservoirs  on  each 
stream.  The  land  to  be  reclaimed  is  mainly  in  the  Boise  Valley, 
and  a  large  portion  of  the  waters  of  Payette  River  are  to  be  brought 
into  the  Boise  Valley.  The  unit  now  under  construction  involves 
a  dam  on  the  Boise  River,  which  is  more  than  half  completed.  A 
large  canal  will  conduct  water  from  this  point  for  storage  to  a 
basin  known  as  the  Deer  Flat  reservoir.  Two  large  earthen  em- 
bankments are  required  to  form  the  reservoir  basin.  These  em- 
bankments are  under  construction,  one  by  contract  and  the  other 
by  force  account.  Satisfactory  progress  has  been  made,  and  it 
is  expected  that  this  unit  will  be  completed  in  1908. 

Garden  City  Project,  Kansas 

The  Garden  City  project  will  obtain  water  for  irrigation  by 
pumping  from  underground.  For  this  purpose  a  power  plant  has 
been  constructed  at  Deerfield,  Kansas,  consisting  of  steam  turbines 
driving  electric  generators  from  which  the  power  is  delivered  to 
twenty-three  separate  pumping  stations,  which  will  supply  water 
to  about  8,600  acres,  situated  in  the  vicinity  of  Garden  City.  The 
power  plant  is  practically  completed  and  some  of  the  pumping 
stations  are  ready  for  tests.  Water  will  be  furnished  to  most  of 
the  land  during  1908,  the  old  existing  canal  system  being  used  for 
this  purpose. 

Huntley  Project,  Montana 

The  Huntley  project  provides  for  the  diversion  of  water  from 
the  Yellowstone  River  at  a  point  about  three  miles  above  Huntley, 
Montana,  on  the  south  bank.  The  canal  and  tunnels  necessary  for 
this  diversion  have  been  constructed  to  cover  more  than  20,000 
acres  of  land,  and  the  project  as  a  whole  will  include  about  30,000 
acres,  twelve  miles  from  the  source  of  the  canal.     There  is  a  great 


2IO  The  Ajuials  of  the  .liiiericaii  Academy 

deal  of  side-hill  work  which  is  very  difficult  and  expensive,  and  it 
is  found  necessary  to  drop  the  water  to  a  lower  level  for  the  major 
portion  of  the  lands.  The  power  generated  by  this  fall  is  used 
to  pump  a  portion  of  the  water  to  a  higher  level  to  command  lands 
on  the  top  of  the  mesa.  This  pumping  plant  has  been  completed 
and  will  be  in  operation  in  1908.  The  lands  to  be  reclaimed  form 
a  portion  of  the  area  which  the  Crow  Indians  by  treaty  ratified 
bv  Act  of  Congress  approved  April  27,  1904,  ceded  to  the  United 
States.  They  were  formally  opened  to  settlement  on  June  26, 
1907,  and  a  considerable  number  of  entries  have  been  made  for 
which  water  will  be  delivered  in   1908. 

Sun  Rk'cr  Project,  Montana 

The  Sun  River  project  provides  for  the  irrigation  of  a  large 
acreage  on  both  sides  of  Sun  River  and  the  construction  of  a 
number  of  reservoirs  for  regulating  the  waters.  The  first  unit, 
authorized  in  March.  1906,  is  now  under  construction  and  will 
irrigate  about  18.000  acres  in  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Shaw,  for  wdiich 
water  will  be  regulated  in  a  small  reservoir  on  Willow  Creek. 
The  main  canal  for  the  Fort  Shaw  unit  is  under  construction  and 
work  has  been  begun  on  the  lateral  system.  The  outlet  tunnel  and 
other  preliminary  work  on  the  Willow  Creek  reservoir  are  almost 
completed.  It  is  expected  that  a  small  acreage  of  land  under  this 
unit  will  be  offered  for  settlement  in  1906. 

North  Platte  Project,  W yoniin ^-\ ebraska 

The  North  Platte  project  involves  the  construction  of  a  reser- 
voir on  the  North  Platte  River  about  fifty  miles  above  Casper, 
Wyoming,  to  hold  the  winter  and  summer  flood  waters  for  use 
during  the  low-water  period  of  the  late  summer,  the  normal  flow 
of  the  late  summer  ha\ing  been  already  appropriated  and  applied 
to  beneficial  use  by  farmers  on  the  lowei"  river,  mainly  in  Nebraska. 
The  reservoir,  which  has  been  named  the  Pathfinder,  will  have  a 
capacity  of  1,000,000  acre  feet,  and  the  dam  will  be  about  200 
feet  high.  The  contract  for  this  construction  was  let  to  the  Gedde.> 
and  Seerie  Stone  Company,  in  1905.  and  is  40  per  cent  completed. 
The  contractors  are  making  very  satisfactory  progress  and  doing 
excellent  work.     It   is  expected   that  the   dam  will  be   completed 


u 


H 


> 


RcclaiiuHioii  of  ^Irid  West  2ri 

about  the  end  of  1908.  The  water  stored  in  the  Pathfinder  reser- 
voir will  be  diverted  for  irrigation  at  various  points  on  the  lower 
river  and  both  sides  of  the  line  between  Wyoming  and  Nebraska. 
At  present  a  diversion  dam  is  under  construction  by  the  S.  R.  H. 
Robinson  and  Son  Construction  Company,  near  the  station  of 
Whalen,  Wyoming,  on  the  Burlington  road.  Satisfactory  pro- 
gress has  been  made  with  this  dam  and  it  will  be  completed  early 
in  1908.  From  this  point  a  canal,  with  a  capacity  of  1,400  cubic 
feet  per  second,  has  been  constructed  and  nearly  completed  to  a 
point  about  100  miles  eastward,  situated  nearly  northeast  of  Scotts- 
bluff,  Nebraska.  This  canal  at  present  covers  nearly  30,000  acres 
in  Wyoming,  and  about  75,000  acres  in  Nebraska,  40,000  of  which 
it  is  expected  will  be  ready  for  irrigation  in  the  year  1908.  Water 
was  turned  into  the  canal  May  5,  1906,  and  was  used  for  irriga- 
tion during  that  summer  upon  certain  tracts  in  Wyoming.  Its 
use  has  been  extended  during  the  past  season.  Construction  is 
being  pushed  upon  the  distribution  system,  and  it  is  expected  that 
over  40,000  acres  can  be  irrigated  in  Nebraska  the  next  irriga- 
tion season. 

Trnckcc-Carsoii  Project,  Nevada 

The  Truckee-Carson  project  consists  of  the  diversion  of  waters 
of  Truckee  and  Carson  Rivers  upon  the  adjacent  lands,  mostly 
lying  in  the  lower  Carson  basin.  The  Truckee  waters  are  carried 
by  a  large  conduit  of  i  ,400  second  feet  capacity  to  the  Carson  River, 
a  small  amount  of  the  water  being  distributed  upon  the  divide 
between  these  rivers.  A  large  diversion  dam  in  the  Carson  River 
has  been  constructed  and  the  water  is  carried  through  a  large 
canal  to  the  land  south  of  the  Carson  River,  a  small  area  on  the 
north  side  being  commanded  also  by  a  smaller  canal.  At  present 
100,000  acres  of  land  are  ready  for  settlement  and  about  30,000 
acres  are  actually  under  cultivation.  Lake  Tahoe  will  be  used  as 
a  storage  reservoir  to  serve  this  project.  With  the  regulation 
accomplished  by  this  reservoir  it  will  be  possible  to  irrigate  about 
150,000  acres  of  land.  Several  other  reservoirs  are  also  contemplated, 
which  will  greatly  extend  the  area  to  be  covered.  Considerable 
vacant  land  on  this  project  is  now  under  irrigation  and  available 
for  homestead  entry  under  the  Reclamation  Act. 


212  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

Carlsbad  Project,  New  Mexico 

The  Carlsbad  project  was  constructed  by  private  enterprise 
in  the  early  '90's,  but  was  not  successful,  either  physically  or 
financially.  After  contending  with  washouts  and  various  other 
disasters,  the  proprietary  company  in  1905  found  itself  unable 
to  replace  the  Avalon  dam,  which  was  destroyed  by  a  flood  in 
1904,  and  upon  which  the  canal  system  depended  for  its  supply. 
The  property  was  transferred  to  the  United  States  and  the  Re- 
clamation Service  undertook  its  rehabilitation.  Water  was  de- 
livered to  a  portion  of  the  lands  in  May,  1907,  and  about  20,000 
acres  \\\\\  be  placed  under  irrigation  in  1908. 

Hondo  Project,  New  Mexico 

The  Hondo  project,  now  practically  completed,  provides  for 
the  diversion  of  waters  of  Hondo  River  into  a  basin  constructed 
to  the  north  of  the  river  from  which  the  stored  waters  will  be 
discharged  into  the  channel  of  the  Hondo  River  below,  and  diverted 
upon  lands  in  the  vicinity  of  Roswell,  New  Mexico,  This  project  con- 
templates the  reclamation  of  10,000  acres  of  land,  and  some  water 
may  be  delivered  for  irrigation  in  1908. 

Rio  Grande  Project,  Nezv  Mexico-Texas 

The  Rio  Grande  project  contemplates  the  construction  of  a 
large  storage  reservoir  between  San  Marcial  and  Engle  stations 
on  the  Santa  Fe  Railroad.  This  reservoir  will  have  a  capacity' 
of  about  2,000,000  acre  feet,  and  will  be  ample  to  completely  regu- 
late the  entire  flow  of  the  Rio  Grande  at  this  point.  The  stored 
waters  will  be  diverted  at  various  points  below  to  irrigate  about 
180,000  acres  of  land,  a  small  portion  of  which  is  now  under  culti- 
vation, with  a  very  uncertain  water  supply,  from  the  natural  flow 
of  the  river.  By  treaty  with  ]\Iexico  60,000  acre  feet  of  this  water 
will  be  delivered  annually  at  the  head  of  the  Mexican  ditch  near 
El  Paso  for  use  upon  the  ^Mexican  side.  For  this  reason  Congress 
made  a  direct  appropriation  of  $1,000,000  for  the  payment  of  a 
portion  of  the  expense  of  this  project,  which  is  estimated  to  cost 
about  $8,000,000.  A  diversion  dam  is  now  under  construction 
and  nearing  completion  in  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Selden,  which  will 
divert  the  unregulated  waters  into  existing  canals.  The  dam  will 
be  of  concrete  and  will  be  ready  for  service  in  1908.  Only  pre- 
liminary work  has  yet  been  done  upon  the  reservoir. 


Plate  VI.— Outlet  tower,   Hondo   reservoir,   New  Mcj 


Reclamation  of  Arid  West  213 

Lozi'cr  Y ellozvstone  Project,  Montana-North  Dakota 

The  Lower  Yellowstone  project  will  irrigate  lands  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Yellowstone  River,  beginning  at  a  point  about  twenty- 
five  miles  below  Glendive,  Montana,  and  extending  to  the  junction 
of  the  Yellowstone  and  Missouri  rivers.  The  river  will  be  di- 
verted by  a  timber  and  stone  dam  about  twenty  miles  below  Glen- 
dive, and  the  canal  will  be  constructed  in  heavy  cut  for  several 
miles  eastward  from  this  point  until  it  emerges  on  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  The  project  will  irrigate  about  70,000  acres  of 
land,  about  two-thirds  of  which  is  in  Montana  and  one-third  in 
North  Dakota.  It  involves  much  heavy  construction  and  includes 
one  direct  pumping  plant  where  the  power,  generated  by  water 
falling  from  the  canal  to  the  level  of  the  bottom  lands,  will  be 
utilized  to  lift  a  portion  of  the  water  to  a  bench  above  the  canal 
and  cover  about  3,000  acres  of  additional  land.  Construction  on 
the  main  canal  is  in  an  advanced  stage  and  a  large  number  of  the 
laterals  are  nearing  completion.  It  is  expected  that  water  will 
be  delivered  to  a  large  portion  of  the  land  some  time  in  1908. 

Buford-Trcnton  and  Williston  Projects,  North  Dakota 

Two  pumping  projects  are  under  construction  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Missouri  River  which  will  develop  power  by  the  use  of  the 
lignite  which  occurs  in  the  vicinity. 

At  Williston  a  large  power  station  has  been  constructed  at 
the  mouth  of  the  lignite  mine,  and  power  is  transmitted  to  a 
pumping  plant  on  the  river  near  Williston  and  to  another  pumping 
plant  at  Buford.  From  these  pumping  plants  the  water  will  be 
discharged  in  canals  to  valley  lands  from  Buford  to  Williston. 
These  pumping  plants  are  in  an  advanced  stage  of  construction 
and  will  be  ready  to  deliver  water  some  time  in  1908. 

Klamath  Project,  Oregon-California 

The  Klamath  project  is  an  interstate  project  involving  the 
reclamation  of  lands  in  Oregon  and  California  in  the  vicinity  of 
Klamath  Falls,  Oregon,  by  the  use  of  the  waters  from  upper 
Klamath  Lake  and  of  Lost  River.  A  large  canal  from  upper  Kla- 
math Lake  to  Lost  River  has  been  completed  by  contract,  and  water 
was  delivered  in  the  past  season  to  lands  along  its  course.  The 
power  canal  on  the  right  bank  of  Link  River  is  being  constructed, 


214  ^^^^  Annals  of  the  .inicrican  Academy 

which  will  furnish  power  for  local  use  and  supply  the  needs  of 
the  company  whose  enterprise  will  be  superseded  by  the  govern- 
ment canal.  This  canal  will  be  extended  to  the  right  bank  of  the 
Klamath  River. 

Umatilla  Project,  Oregon 

The  Umatilla  project  diverts  the  water  from  Umatilla  River 
and  carries  it  through  a  long  conduit  to  a  reservoir  near  Cold 
Springs,  formed  by  building  a  dam  across  a  dry  ravine.  The  head- 
works  and  feed  canal  have  been  constructed  under  contract,  and 
work  by  force  account  is  being  vigorously  pushed  upon  the  Cold 
Springs  dam.  It  will  be  an  earthen  structure,  and  the  reservoir 
will  have  a  capacity  of  50,000  acre  feet.  Work  is  also  being 
pushed  on  the  outlet  canal  and  distribution  system  and  it  is  ex- 
pected that  a  small  acreage  can  be  irrigated  during  the  coming 
season,  although  it  will  be  impossible  to  complete  the  project 
before  1909. 

Belle  Fourche  Project,  South  Dakota 

The  Belle  Fourche  project  utilizes  the  waters  of  Belle  Fourche 
River  by  diverting  them  at  a  point  near  the  town  of  Belle  Fourche 
and  carrying  them  to  a  reservoir,  to  be  constructed  on  Owl  Creek 
at  its  junction  with  Dry  Creek.  The  diversion  dam  and  a  feed 
canal,  both  of  which  arc  large  structures,  have  been  completed, 
and  work  is  being  carried  on  under  contract  on  the  large  earthen 
dam  across  Owl  Creek.  Extensive  work  has  also  been  done  on 
the  main  canal  and  the  distribution  system.  Some  land  will  be 
placed  under  irrigation  in  1908  and  is  now  ready  for  settlement. 

Strazvbcrry  Valley  Project,  Utah 

The  Strawberry  X'alley  project  provides  for  a  storage  reser- 
voir on  Strawberry  Creek,  a  tributary  of  Duchesne  River.  Utah. 
The  stored  water  will  be  carried  through  a  tunnel  about  four 
miles  in  length,  discharging  into  Diamond  Creek,  a  trilmtary  of 
Spanish  Fork  River.  The  water  will  be  delivered  from  the  Spanish 
Fork  and  utilized  upon  about  40.000  acres  of  land  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  town  of  Spanish  Fork.  rrcHminary  work  for  this  project 
is  under  way.  The  western  end  of  the  tunnel  has  been  opened  up 
and  a  power  plant  is  being  constructed   for  the  development  of 


Reclamation  of  Arid  West  215 

electric  power  for  construction  in  the  tunnel.  The  canal  used 
for  this  power  plant  will  also  be  utilized  for  the  conduction  of 
the  waters  to  the  irrigable  lands  when  these  are  available.  It 
is  expected  that  the  power  plant  will  be  completed  and  active 
work  begun  on  the  tunnel  in  the  spring  of  1908.  The  project, 
however,  will  require  several  years  for  its  completion.  In  the 
meantime  the  canal  system  can  be  used  for  delivering  the  flood 
waters  of  Spanish  Fork  to  the  lands  which  will  later  receive  a 
full  supply. 

Okanogan  Project,  JVashington 

The  Okanogan  project  in  northern  Washington  provides  for 
the  storage  of  water  on  Salmon  River  and  its  diversion  at  a  point 
lower  down  to  cover  bench  land  lying  between  Alma  and  River- 
side on  Okanogan  River.  Work  is  now  in  progress  on  the  Salmon 
Lake  reservoir  and  also  on  the  canal  system,  and  is  being  vigor- 
ously pushed  by  force  account. 

Sunnyside  Project,  Washington 

The  Sunnyside  Canal  system  of  the  Washington  Irrigation 
Company  was  purchased  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  and  is 
being  enlarged  and  improved  for  the  better  service  of  a  larger  area 
of  land.  The  old  wooden  headworks  have  been  removed  and  per- 
manent works  of  concrete  of  larger  capacity  have  been  built.  The 
diversion  dam  partly  washed  away  during  the  flood  in  the  spring 
of  1907,  and  a  permanent  dam  of  concrete  is  being  built  in  its 
place.  It  is  expected  that  this  dam  will  be  completed  the  present 
autumn.  The  wasteway  below  Zillah  is  being  reconstructed  and  put 
in  safe  condition  to  carry  the  water  of  the  canal  when  repairs  or 
other  emergencies  render  this  necessary.  The  water  for  the  exten- 
sion of  irrigation  under  this  system  will  be  provided  by  storage 
in  Lakes  Kachess,  Keechelus,  and  Clealum,  on  the  headwaters 
of  Yakima  River.  Temporary  controlling  works  have  already  been 
installed  at  the  two  former  points  and  permanent  dams  below  the 
lakes  will  eventually  be  built. 

Ticton  Project,   Washington 

The  Tieton  project  receives  its  water  supply  from  the  Tieton 
River,  northwest  of  the  City  of  North  Yakima,  and  carries  it 
along  the  canyon  wall  and  over  the  divide  into  the  Cowiche  Basin, 


2i6  TJie  Annals  of'tlic  American  Academy 

where  an  area  of  about  30,000  acres  can  be  commanded.  The  work 
in  the  canyon  is  very  heavy,  requiring  side-hill  canyon  in  rock 
and  a  large  amount  of  tunneling.  This  work  is  now  under  way, 
the  excavation  and  tunneling  being  done  by  the  government  under 
force  account  and  the  canal  lining  under  contract.  The  power  plant 
for  excavating  these  tunnels  has  been  constructed  on  the  Tieton 
River  and  is  now  in  operation,  furnishing  power  to  the  drills  and 
ventilating  machinery.  The  canal  system  in  Cowiche  Valley  is 
under  survey  and  will  soon  be  ready  for  construction.  The  waters 
utilized  for  this  project  are  appropriated  lower  down  from  the 
Naches  River  into  which  the  Tieton  flows.  The  water  to  be  di- 
verted from  the  Tieton  will  be  supplied  to  the  prior  appropriators 
on  the  Naches  by  storage  in  Bumping  Lake  reservoir,  the  construc- 
tion of  which  will  be  undertaken  next  year. 

SJioslwnc  Project,  JVyoming 
The  Shoshone  project  contemplates  the  storage  and  complete 
control  of  the  waters  of  the  Shoshone  River  by  the  construction 
of  a  dam  310  feet  high,  eight  miles  above  Cody,  Wyoming.  The 
contract  for  the  construction  of  this  dam  was  let  to  Prendergast 
and  Clarkson  in  1905,  but  this  firm  failed  and  their  bondsmen,  the 
United  States  Fidelity  and  Guaranty  Company,  executed  a  contract 
with  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  for  the  construction  of  the  dam. 
Temporary  diversion  works  have  been  completed  and  the  contrac- 
tor is  engaged  upon  excavating  for  the  foundation  of  the  dam. 
The  work  has  been  delayed  by  washout  of  the  temporary  diversion 
works,  but  these  have  been  restored  and  things  are  in  shape  for 
pushing  the  work  rapidly.  The  reservoir  to  be  formed  will  have 
a  storage  capacity  of  about  420,000  acre  feet.  The  water  will  be 
allowed  to  flow  down  the  river  and  diverted  at  various  points,  the 
principal  one  being  at  the  Corbett  Dam,  which  is  under  contract 
and  nearly  completed.  From  this  diversion  dam  water  flows 
through  the  tunnel  known  as  the  Corbett  tunnel,  about  18,000  feet 
in  length,  and  emerges  on  top  of  the  mesa.  This  tunnel  was  orig- 
inally under  contract,  but  the  contractor  failed  and  the  work  was 
completed  by  the  government  on  force  account.  The  canal  system 
is  now  under  construction  by  contract,  and  it  is  expected  that  water 
will  be  ready  for  delivery  to  about  15,000  acres  of  land  in  May, 
1908,  between  the  stations  of  Ralston  and  Garland  along  the  Bur- 


Plate  VIII.— Site  of  Shoshone  Dam,  Wyoming,  looking  np-stream. 
Under  construction.  Height  from  foundation  to  copir^  310  feet.  It  will 
be  the  highest  dam  in  the  world. 


Reclamation  of  Arid  IV est  217 

lington  Railroad.  Additional  areas  will  be  covered  by  the  distribu- 
tion system  and  placed  under  irrigation  as  settlement  demands. 

The  total  amount  expended  from  the  Reclamation  Fund  to 
December  31,  1907^  is  $33,300,000.  The  amount  available  for  ex- 
penditure during  the  calendar  year  1908  is  approximately  $7,000,- 

000.  The  projects  now  approved  and  in  process  of  construction, 
with  the  irrigable  acreage  which  wmII  be  placed  under  cultivation 
within  the  next  few  years,  are  as  follows : 

Project.                                                  Estimated  Irrigable 

cost.  acreage. 

Salt    River,    Arizona    $5,300,000  200,000 

Yuma,    California-Arizona     4,500,000  I00,ooo 

Orland,    California    1,500,000  30,000 

Uncompahgre,    Colorado    6,200,000  140,000 

Grand   River,    Colorado    2,500,000  50,000 

Minidoka,    Idaho    2,000,000  80,000 

Payette-Boise,    Idaho    3,600,000  120,000 

Garden   City,    Kansas    320,000  8,000 

Huntley,    Montana     900,000  30,000 

Sun    River,    Montana    500,000  16,000 

North  Platte,  Nebraska-Wyoming   4,100,000  118,000 

Truckee-Carson,    Nevada    4,500,000  150,000 

Hondo,  New   Mexico    336,000  10,000 

Carlsbad,   New   Mexico    600,000  20,000 

Rio   Grande,   New   Mexico    200,000  10,000 

Lower  Yellowstone,   Montana-North   Da- 
kota          2,700,000  67,000 

Buford-Trenton     and     Williston,     North 

Dakota    i  ,000,000  30,000 

Klamath,    Oregon-California     1,400,000  50,000 

Umatilla,    Oregon     1,140,000  20,000 

Belle  Fourche,   South   Dakota    3,400,000  100,000 

Strawberry   Valley,   Utah    1,350,000  35.ooo 

Okanogan,   Washington    500,000  9,000 

Tieton,    Washington    1,400,000  24,000 

Sunnysidc,    Washington     2,000,000  50,000 

Wapato,    Wash:.igton    600,000  20,000 

Shoshone,    Wyoming     4,500,000  100,000 


Total    $57,046,000  1,587,000 

Some  of  the  above  projects  are  cai)able  of  greater  extension 
beyond  that  indicated  above.  In  addition  to  this  a  number  of 
large  projects  have  been  investigated  and  found  feasible,  but  not 


2i8  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

yet  taken  up.  No  detailed  estimate  of  acreage  or  cost  has  been 
made  of  such  projects,  but  the  following  table  shows  a  rough 
approximation  on  these  points : 

Projects.                                                    Estimated  Probable 

areage.  cost. 

Little   Colorado,   Arizona    80,000  $  4,000,000 

Sacramento  Valley,   California    500,000  JO,ooo,ooo 

San  Joaquin  Valley,   California    200,000  8,000,000 

Colorado  River,  Colorado,  Utah,  Cal- 
ifornia, Arizona   750,000  40,000,000 

Dubois,    Idaho        100,000  4,000,000 

Lake   Basin,   Mcmtana    300,000  12,000,000 

Las  Vegas,  New   Mexico    35,ooo  2,100,000 

Urton  Lake,  New  Mexico   4S,ooo  2,000,000 

Walker  and  Humboldt  Rivers,  Nevada    500,000  15,000,000 

Red  River,  Oklahoma   100,000  4,000,000 

John  Day  River,  Oregon  200,000  10,000,000 

Weber,    LTtah    100,000  5,000,000 

Big  Bend,   Washington    750.000  30,000,000 

Goshen  Hole,  Wyoming   120,000  5,000,000 


Totals     3,780,000  $161,100,000 


THE  RELATION  OF  FORESTS  TO  STREAM  CONTROL 


By   Hon.   Gifford   Pinchot, 
United  States  Forester,  Washington,  D.  C. 


The  phenomenal  development  of  industry  and  the  consequent 
increased  demand  for  transportation  have  turned  attention  to  our 
most  natural  means  of  inland  transportation — the  lakes  and  rivers. 
It  has  forced  us  to  realize  that  our  streams,  in  spite  of  the  tens 
of  millions  of  dollars  appropriated  for  their  development,  are  be- 
coming less  navigable.  Increasing  amovmts  of  sediment  are  de- 
posited each  year  in  their  middle  and  lower  courses,  while  the 
flow  of  the  streams  themselves  becomes  less  regular.  Navigable 
with  difficulty,  if  at  all,  during  the  summer,  they  become  turbtilent 
and  turbid  during  the  spring,  overflow  their  banks,  and  often  carry 
destruction  to  life  and  property.  The  skill  of  our  engineers  is 
taxed  to  the  utmost  to  keep  harbors  and  rivers  free  from  the 
constantly  recurring  deposits  of  sediment.  Because  of  the  rapidly 
increasing  tonnage  and  draft  of  vessels,  it  is  not  sufficient  merely  to 
maintain  the  present  depth  of  our  rivers  and  harbors.  Their  depth 
must  be  constantly  increased  or  they  will  gradually  fail  to  accom- 
modate the  larger  vessels,  and  such  of  them  as  fail  must  finally 
be  abandoned  altogether. 

More  powerful  dredging  machinery  is  constantly  coming  into 
use.  Efforts  are  common  to  prevent  the  deposit  of  sediment  by  con- 
fining streams  to  channels  narrow  enough  to  accelerate  the  current 
and  so  lessen  the  rate  of  deposition.  This  method  of  channel  ad- 
justment has  accomplished  great  good  in  improving  the  courses 
of  many  of  our  rivers,  but  it  cannot  and  does  not  claim  to  regulate 
in  the  least  the  water  supply  of  the  streams. 

The  method  of  storage  reservoirs,  extensively  tried  in  France, 
has  been  suggested  as  a  method  of  river  improvement  in  the 
United  States.  Reservoirs  filled  in  the  spring  freshet  season  serve 
to  increase  the  flow  later  in  the  year  when  the  streams  run  low. 
Floods  mav  thus  be  prevented,  and  the  immense  loads  of  silt  which 
they  would  otherwise  have  brought  down  are  thus  kept  from  being 
dropped  by  the  slow  current  in  the  lower  channel.     Theoretically 

(2iq) 


220  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

this  method  of  storage  reservoirs  will  accomplish  all  that  can  be 
desired  in  regulating  stream  flow  and  preventing  excessive  depo- 
sition, if  only  adequate  storage  capacity  is  available.  In  practice, 
too,  it  will  doubtless  be  efficient  in  places  where  the  erosion  is 
not  rapid.  But  the  great  disadvantage  of  this  method,  as  is  proved 
by  the  experience  of  the  French  engineers,  lies  in  the  fact  that  the 
reservoirs  themselves  become  clogged  with  detritus  and  must  sooner 
or  later,  varying  with  the  forest  conditions  and  the  character 
of  the  topography  drained^  be  either  abandoned  or  maintained  by 
constant  clearing  out   at   large  expense. 

The  engineers  of  the  United  States  Reclamation  Service  fully 
realize  that  the  amount  of  solid  matter  carried  by  a  stream  is  a  very 
serious  problem^  in  connection  with  the  construction  of  storage 
reservoirs  for  irrigation  purposes.  Streams  from  barren  water- 
sheds abound  in  violent  freshets  which  carry  with  them  eroded 
sediment,  to  be  deposited  in  the  first  pool  of  still  water  they  en- 
counter, and  thus  reduce  the  storage  capacity  of  the  reservoirs 
into  W'hich  they  flow.  Mill  dams  completely  filled  with  sediment 
are  to  be  seen  everywhere,  and  offer  good  demonstrations  of  the 
damage  to  storage  reservoirs  from  silting. 

The  regulation  of  streams  by  storage  reservoirs  is  really  an 
imitation  of  wdiat  nature  is  able  to  accomplish  by  the  forests.  For- 
ests at  the  sources  of  the  streams  are  veritable  storage  reservoirs, 
and  without  them  no  artificial  remedy  can  be  either  adequate 
or  permanent.  Erosion  destroys  reservoirs,  and  must  be  controlled 
if  reservoirs  are  to  succeed.  This  can  be  done  only  by  conserving 
or  restoring  the  forests.  The  forest  cover  alone  can  reduce  the 
amount  of  sediment  carried  by  water,  and  make  possible  the  per- 
manent improvement  of  inland  waterways.  To  check  erosion  by 
reforestation,  work  must  begin  in  the  highlands,  because  there 
the  slopes  are  steepest,  the  rainfall  greatest,  and  the  action  or  frost 
most  considerable,  and  therefore  the  process  of  erosion  is  most 
rapid  and  the  results  most  destructive. 

No  one  will  deny  the  necessity  for  engineering  methods  to  cope 
with  the  moderate  deposits  of  silt  and  the  seasonal  irregularities 
in  flow,  which  may  indeed  be  lessened  by  forest  cover,  but  which 
are  unavoidable  so  long  as  the  sun  shines  and  the  rain  falls.  Yet 
it  remains  true  that  a  forest  cover  interposed  between  rain  and  rock 
affords  the  best  natural  means  for  regulating  streams  and  reducing 


Relation  of  Forests  to  Stream  Control 


221 


the  loads  of  detritus.  Without  such  a  forest  cover  every  attempt 
to  improve  the  regimen  and  the  channel  of  a  stream  will  be  little 
more  than  a  temporary  expedient. 

Both  wide  experience  and  scientific  investigation  have  shown 
that  there  are  two  functions  exercised  by  the  forest  in  relation 
to  stream-flow. 

1.  Its  tendency  to  reduce  the  difference  between  high  and  low 
water,  an  influence  which  is  of  most  importance  in  the  distribu- 
tion of  flood  crests,  and  in  maintaining  a  steady  flow  of  water 
during  the  dififerent  seasons  of  the  year  and  during  cycles  of  dry 
and  wet  years. 

2.  Its  value  as  a  surface  protection  against  soil  erosion,  thus 
reducing  the  solid  burden  of  storm  waters,  and  decreasing  the  de- 
posits of  sand  and  silt,  which  arc  the  causes  of  shallow  and  chang- 
ing channels. 

These  two  functions  follow  from  the  very  nature  of  the  forest 
as  a  soil  cover.  The  roots  of  trees  penetrate  through  the  soil  to 
the  underlying  rock,  where  they  fix  themselves  in  the  crevices, 
and  in  this  way  hold  in  place  the  loose  soil  and  prevent  slipping 
and  washing.  The  crowns  of  the  trees  break  the  force  of  the  rain 
and  also  protect  the  soil  from  being  carried  away  to  the  lower 
valleys  during  heavy  storms.  The  leaves  and  the  branches  allow 
the  rain  to  reach  the  ground  but  gradually ;  after  a  rain,  water  con- 
tinues to  drip  from  the  crown  for  several  hours,  and  the  soil  is  thus 
enabled  to  absorb  the  greater  part  of  it.  Screened  from  the  rays  of 
the  sun  and  covered  with  a  surface  mulch  of  fallen  leaves  and  humus, 
the  soil  remains  loose  and  granular  in  structure  and  is  therefore 
capable  of  imbibing  and  retaining  water  with  sponge-like  capacity. 
It  is  strewn  with  fallen  leaves,  branches,  and  trunks,  and  traversed 
by  a  net-work  of  dead  and  live  roots  which  impede  the  superficial 
run-off  of  water  after  heavy  storm.  This  retardation  of  the  super- 
ficial run-ofif  allows  more  of  it  to  sink  into  the  ground  through 
the  many  channels  left  in  the  soil  by  decayed  roots.  Surface  rvm- 
off  of  rain  water  is  wasteful  and  destructive,  and  unless  artificially 
controlled  serves  as  a  rule  no  useful  purpose  and  may  inflict 
great  loss.  Sub-surface  drainage  makes  the  best  use  of  the  total 
precipitation  that  reaches  the  ground.  It  serves  both  for  the  suste- 
nance of  plant  life  and  for  the  flow  of  streams.  Accordingly  the 
agency  of  the   forest  cover  in   increasing  the   seepage  run-ofif  at 


222  The  Aiuials  of  tlic  .Inicricait  .-Icadciiiy 

the  expense  of  the  surface  run-off  is  the  most  important  function 
which  the  forest  performs  in  relation  to  water  supply. 

A  conimon  conception  of  the  effect  of  forest  destruction  upon 
climate  is  that  it  reduces  the  amount  of  rainfall.  Because  springs 
l)ecome  dry  and  streams  shrink  in  a  deforested  region,  it  is  assumed 
that  less  rain  must  fall.  Whether  or  not  there  be  any  truth  in 
this  assumption  (I  believe  there  is),  it  is  certain  that  the  main 
cause  of  the  observed  facts  is  the  profound  effect  which  forest 
destruction  has  upon  the  course  which  the  water  takes  after  it 
reaches  the  ground.  The  greatest  influence  of  the  forest  is  not 
upon  the  amount  of  rain  which  falls,  but  on  what  becomes  of  the 
rain  after  it  falls.  The  water  that  sinks  into  the  ground  passes 
for  greatly  varying  distances  beneath  the  surface  before  reappear- 
ing, and  is  thus  drawn  off  gradually  from  the  forested  watershed 
and  supplies  the  brooks  with  pure  water  relatively  free  from 
detritus. 

How  active  a  part  is  played  by  the  forest  in  regulating  the 
run-off"  is  clearly  shown  by  actual  measurements  of  the  flow  of 
streams  which  drain  forested  and  unforested  watersheds.  A  typical 
illustration  of  streams  from  barren,  treeless  watersheds  may  be 
found  in  the  flow  of  Queen  Creek,  in  Arizona.^  This  stream  dis- 
charges only  in  violent  freshets,  recurring  usually  as  great  flood- 
waves  which  subside  almost  as  soon  as  they  arise.  The  area  of  the 
drainage  basin  is  143  square  miles,  of  which  61  per  cent  is  above 
an  elevation  of  3,000  feet.  The  rainfall  is  estimated  to  be  about 
15  inches.  The  maximum  flood  discharge  of  Queen  Creek  in  1896 
was  9,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  the  mean  discharge  was  15 
cubic  feet  per  second ;  during  a  large  portion  of  the  year  the  stream 
was  entirely  dry. 

Cedar  Creek,  in  Washington,  is  typical  of  streams  flowing 
from  timbered  watersheds.-  The  basin  of  Cedar  Creek  lies  on 
the  western  slope  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  and  is  covered 
with  a  dense  forest  and  a  very  heavy  undergrowth  of  ferns  and 
moss.  The  drainage  area  is  the  same  as  that  of  Queen  Creek, 
143  square  miles.  The  precipitation  for  the  year  1897  was  about 
93  inches  for  the  lower  portion  of  the  basin,  and  probably  150 
inches  on  the  mountain  summits  ;  in  spite,  however,  of  the  fact  that 

^Eighteenth   Annual   Report   of   the   Oeolosical    Survey,   Tart   4.   Ilydroffraphy. 
'Nineteenth    Annual    Report    of   Geological    Survey,   Part   4,    Ilj-drography. 


Relation  of  Forests  to  Stream  Control  223 

the  precipitation  in  Cedar  Creek  basin  was  from  six  to  nine  times 
more  than  that  in  Queen  Creek  basin,  the  maximum  flood  discharge 
of  Cedar  Creek  for  1897  was  but  3,601  cubic  feet  per  second,  as 
against  the  9,000  cubic  feet  of  Queen  Creek.  On  the  other  hand 
the  flow  of  Cedar  Creek  was  continuous  throughout  the  year,  and 
the  minimum  discharge  was  never  less  than  27  per  cent  of  the  mean 
for  the  year.  The  mean  discharge  of  Cedar  Creek  was  1,089 
cubic  feet  as  against  15  feet  for  Queen  Creek.  This  radical 
difference  in  the  behavior  of  the  two  streams  can  be  explained 
only  by  the  dift'erence  in  the  soil  cover  of  the  two  basins.  Cedar 
Creek  basin  is  covered  with  a  heavy  forest,  while  Queen  Creek 
basin  is  almost  entirely  bare,  with  but  a  few  scattering  pinion 
trees  and  a  little  brush  or  grass. 

Mr.  Marsden  Manson,'''  in  discussing  the  stream  flow  from  cer- 
tain points  on  the  Yuba  River  basin,  California,  makes  a  very  inter- 
esting comparison  between  its  two  branches.  North  Fork  and  South 
Fork,  of  which  the  first  has  a  forested  and  the  second  a  denuded 
basin.  Both  of  the  catchment  areas  lie  on  the  western  slope  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  and  have  exposures  of  marked  similarity. 

The  south  branch  of  the  North  Fork  has  a  watershed  area 
of  139  square  miles,  which  gave  in  1900  a  maximum  run-ofif  of 
113  cubic  feet  per  second,  or  0.8  cubic  feet  per  second  per  square 
mile.  This  drainage  area  is  well  covered  with  timber  and  brush, 
and  for  four  months  gives  a  minimum  run-off  of  1.441.125,000 
cubic  feet. 

On  the  South  Fork,  above  Lake  Spaulding,  there  is  a  water- 
shed of  120  square  miles  from  which  the  scattering  timber  that 
once  existed  has  been  cut  off.  The  run-off  of  this  area  is  practically 
nothing  for  four  months  in  each  year,  because  of  this  absence  of 
forests.  If  this  area  were  afforested  and  gave  a  minimum  run-off 
of  0.8  cubic  foot  per  second  per  square  mile,  the  discharge  would 
be  100  cubic  feet  per  second,  or  equivalent  to  1,036,800,000  cubic 
feet  of  effective  storage  capacity.  To  supply  water  for  mining 
and  power  purposes  a  number  of  costly  storage  reservoirs  have 
been  built  on  the  South  Fork.  By  reforesting  the  small  watershed 
a  natural  reservoir  would  be  created  whose  storage  capacity  would 

^Features   and   Water   Rights   of  Yuba   Rivpr.   California.   Bulletin    100,   OflTice  of 
Experiment  Stations,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.     1901. 


224  The  Annals  of  the  Ameriean  Academy 

be  almost  equal  to  the  storage  capacity  of  all  the  reservoirs'*  above 
Lake  Spaulding  clam. 

A  careful  study  of  the  behavior  of  the  streamflow  on  several 
small  timbered  and  non-timbered  catchment  areas  in  the  San  Ber- 
nardino j\Iountains  of  Southern  California,  made  by  Professor 
Toumey  for  the  Forest  Service  in  1902,  brought  out  in  a  most 
convincing  manner  the  effect  of  the  forest  in  decreasing  surface 
run-off  and  sustaining  the  flow  of  mountain  streams.  Three  tim- 
bered drainage  areas  were  studied.  These  gave  during  December — 
a  month  of  unusually  heavy  precipitation — a  run-ofif  of  but  5  per 
cent  of  the  heavy  rainfall  for  that  month ;  during  the  following 
months  of  January,  February  and  March,  they  gave  a  run-ofY 
of  approximately  2>7  P^^  cent  of  the  total  precipitation,  and  three 
months  after  the  close  of  the  rainy  season  still  supported  a  well- 
sustained  streamflow.  At  the  same  time,  the  similar  and  neigh- 
boring non-timbered  catchment  area  under  observation  gave  during 
December  a  run-off  of  40  per  cent  of  the  rainfall,  and  during  the 
three  following  months  a  run-off  of  95  per  cent.  In  April  the  run- 
ofif  was  less  than  one-third  of  that  from  each  of  the  forested  catch- 
ment areas,  and  in  June  the  stream  from  the  non-forested  area 
was  dry. 

Streams  flowing  from  barren,  treeless  watersheds,  carry  an 
amount  of  gravel,  sand  and  soil  which  is  simply  enormous  compared 
to  the  amount  in  streams  from  timbered  areas.  Thus  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey  determined  the  amount  of  silt  carried  by 
the  Gila  River  at  the  Buttes,  a  stream  whose  basin  and  regimen 
is  similar  to  that  of  Queen  Creek,  of  Arizona,  to  be  10  per  cent 
of  the  volume  wet  or  2  per  cent  of  solids.  To  appreciate  these 
figures  it  must  be  remembered  that  one-fourth  of  one  per  cent  of 
solid  burden  in  the  stream  is  enough  to  make  the  water  turbid. 

As  long  as  the  ground  is  protected  by  a  natural  covering  of 
forest  growth,  rainfall  has  very  little  erosive  action.  It  is  only 
after  the  ground  is  laid  bare  by  the  removal  of  the  forest  that  the 
erosion  of  the  soil  attains  dangerous  proportions. 

There  has.  of  course,  always  been,  even  when  the  natural 
forests  were  unimpaired,  some  erosion,  especially  in  the  water- 
sheds of  streams  in  the  Southeast  and  Southwest,  but  not  to  the 
extent  which   now   obtains,   and  the  present   erosion   is   not   only 

«The  aggregate  capacity  of  all  the  reservoirs  is  1,.'?75,000,000  cubic  feet. 


Relation  of  Forests  to  Stream  Control  225 

excessive,  but  is  yearly  increasing.  It  is  the  price,  and  in  a  large 
measure  the  product,  of  necessary  agricultural  and  industrial  devel- 
opment under  defective  methods  of  work.  According  to  studies 
of  Humphreys  and  Abbott  the  wearing  down  of  the  earth's  surface 
over  a  region  such  as  the  Mississippi  X'alley  is  something  like  one 
foot  in  five  thousand  years,  independent  of  human  action.  At 
such  a  rate  of  erosion  the  amount  of  sediment  carried  by  the 
Mississippi  River  before  the  dawn  of  civilization  could  not  be 
more  than  70,000,000  tons  per  year.  According  to  Professor  Shaler 
the  wearing  down  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  under  complete  tillage 
will  be  about  the  same  as  that  of  the  Valley  of  the  Po  in  northern 
Italy,  or  one  foot  in  one  thousand  years.  At  such  a  rate  of  erosion, 
the  solid  burden  of  the  Mississippi  River  should  be  350,000,000  tons. 
But  the  amount  of  solid  matter  carried  every  year  by  the  Missis- 
sippi River  was  estimated  several  years  ago  to  be  400,000,000  tons. 
In  other  words,  the  erosion  had  then  reached,  if  not  exceeded  that 
of  the  Po  Valley.  It  is  greater  now.  The  formation  of  soil  through 
underground  decay  of  the  rocks  cannot  keep  pace  with  such  a  rate 
of  erosion.  Unless  measures  are  taken  to  check  it  the  fertile 
layer  of  soil  must  gradually  disappear,  as  has  happened  already 
over  large  areas  in  the  Old  World  from  precisely  similar  causes. 

The  ruinous  effects  of  the  destruction  of  mountain  forests 
upon  the  navigability  of  streams  and  the  cultural  results  of  human 
labor  have  long  been  felt  by  most  European  countries  and  attempts 
have  been  made  to  remedy  them.  France  in  particular  has  learned 
by  bitter  experience  how  terribly  the  lowlands  suffer  when  the 
mountains  lose  their  forest  cover,  and  has  now  proved  by  practical 
demonstrations  that  the  losses  produced  by  forest  destruction  can 
be  repaired  only  by  reforestation. 

During  the  French  Revolution  of  1789  extensive  clearings  were 
made  in  the  forests  of  the  Provenqal  Alps.  The  French  Govern- 
ment early  recognized  the  danger  which  such  bare  areas  threatened 
to  property  and  industry,  and  emphasized  the  importance  of  re- 
forestation. In  1842  the  classical  investigations  by  Surell  made  it 
evident  that  forest  clearing  was  responsible  for  most  of  the  damage 
caused  by  mountain  torrents,  and  that  in  reforestation  lay  the 
remedy.  Laws  were  enacted  in  i860  and  1864  which  recognized 
that  reforestation,  to  improve  streamflow,  to  restore  the  soil, 
and  to  regulate  torrents  was  of  public  utility,  and  therefore  that 


226  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

it  was  a  duty  of  the  government.  Two  methods  were  adopted  to 
carry  out  the  work.  Government  assistance  for  reforestation  vol- 
untarily undertaken  by  communities  or  private  individuals;  and 
compulsory  reforestation  by  means  of  temporary  dispossession, 
whereby  the  option  was  left  with  the  owner  of  recovering  his  lands 
either  by  reimbursement  of  cost  or  by  surrendering  one-half  the  area 
to  the  government.  The  work  was  entrusted  to  the  French  Forest 
Service,  and  from  1861  to  1877,  inclusive,  an  area  of  233,590  acres 
of  mountain  land  was  put  into  forest  or  grass  at  a  cost,  including 
certain  incidental  expenses,  of  $2,900,000.  At  the  close  of  the  last 
century  the  fund  appropriated  by  the  French  Government  for  pro- 
tective afforestation  amounted  to  $12,500,000  in  round  numbers, 
of  which  $4,900,000  went  toward  purchase  of  land  and  $7,600,000 
was  spent  in  improvement  of  streams  and  reforestation  of  their 
drainage  basins.  The  work  resulted  in  bringing  under  control 
a  number  of  torrential  streams  and  in  reforesting  about  425,000 
acres  of  land,  58  per  cent  of  which  belonged  to  the  government, 
25  per  cent  to  communities  and  17  per  cent  to  private  individuals. 
France  has  now  a  far-reaching  plan  for  bringing  under  control 
about  3,000  torrential  streams  in  the  Alps,  Pyrenees,  Ardenees, 
Cevenees  and  the  central  plateaus,  at  a  cost  of  $40,000,000.  Of 
this  35  per  cent,  or  $14,000,000,  is  for  reforestation  alone. 

In  Austria,  attention  was  attracted  to  reforestation  of  water- 
sheds as  a  means  of  regulating  stream  flow  by  the  great  floods  in 
the  Tyrol  and  Karnton.  Austrian  foresters  enumerate  over  500 
torrents  in  the  Tyrol,  whose  basins  need  reforesting,  and  on  100 
streams  the  work  has  already  begun.  Similar  work  is  being  exten- 
sively carried  on  elsewhere  among  the  Austrian  Mountains. 

In  Italy  the  pressing  need  of  reforesting  land  in  the  Apenines 
and  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Alps  has  long  been  urged  upon  the 
government  by  the  people  on  account  of  the  immense  destruction 
wrought  annually  by  the  Po.  which  is  now  three  times  as  destruc- 
tive to  land  as  it  was  in  the  past  century.  As  a  result  of  numerous 
petitions,  a  bill  was  passed  in  1882,  whereby  waste  land  amounting 
to  nearly  a  million  acres  was  to  be  gradually  reforested,  involving 
an  initial  cost  of  $8.40  per  acre  beside  current  expenses. 

The  great  efforts  of  nearly  all  the  states  of  Europe  to  coun- 
teract the  effects  of  indiscriminate  forest  clearing,  efforts  which 
involve  an  outlay  of  scores  of  millions  of  dollars,  show  how  impor- 


Relation  of  forests  to  Stream  Control  227 

tant  the  mountain  forests  are.  They  should  be  regarded  as  a  sort 
of  capital,  whose  function  in  the  national  economy  is  far  higher 
than  the  income  which  the  timber  may  yield. 

Forests  at  high  altitudes,  at  the  sources  of  navigable  streams, 
on  shifting  sands,  on  banks  of  large  rivers,  and  on  steep  exposed 
slopes  are  recognized  in  most  of  the  European  countries  as  "pro- 
tective forests,"  and  are  managed  with  the  prime  object  of  pre- 
venting washing  and  erosion  of  soil.  Thus  at  high  altitudes  on 
steep,  exposed  slopes  and  near  the  timber  line,  clear  cutting  as  a 
rule  is  forbidden  and  timber  must  always  be  cut  either  in  narrow 
strips  or  by  gradual  thinning.  Severe  governmental  regulations 
controlling  the  management  of  protective  forests  on  private  lands 
are  common  in  Europe.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  similar 
action  will  be  forced  upon  us  in  the  United  States  by  the  results 
of  destroying  our  mountain  forests. 


THE  INLAND  WATERWAYS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND 

THE  PLANS  UNDER  CONSIDERATION   FOR 

THEIR  IMPROVEMENT 


By  Urouiiart  A.  Forbes^  Esq.^ 
London,  England. 


Extent  of  the  British  Inland  A^az'tgation  System 

The  total  extent  of  the  waterways  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  as  stated  in  a  Return  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  1898,  wdiich 
is  the  latest  official  record  on  the  subject,  is  3,906  miles  69^ 
chains,  the  mileage  of  those  in  England  and  Wales  being  returned 
as  3,167  miles  16^:4  chains,  that  of  those  in  Scotland  153  miles  21 
chains,  and  that  of  those  in  Ireland  586  miles  32  chains.  This 
estimate,  however,  can  only  be  taken  as  approximately  correct.  It 
omits  various  waterways  of  which  no  official  record  has  been  pre- 
served, such  as  Alilford  Haven,  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  the 
kingdom,  which  has  between  twenty  and  thirty  miles  of  inland 
navigation ;  and  it  also  differs  considerably  both  from  an  earlier 
estimate  of  the  board  published  in  1883  and  from  the  estimates  of 
various  engineers  who  are  recognized  as  authorities  on  the  subject. 
The  discrepancy  between  these  various  estimates  appears  to  be  mainly 
due  to  the  omission  from  some  of  the  waterways  included  in  others 
and  does  not  extend  to  mileage,  and  a  comparison  of  their  details 
with  those  given  in  the  Board  of  Trade  Return  of  1898  shows  that, 
after  deducting  607  miles  of  waterway  abandoned  or  converted  into 
railway,  the  inland  navigation  system  of  the  kingdom  comprises 
about  3,793  miles  in  England  and  Wales.  341  in  Scotland,  and  629 
in  Ireland — a  total  of  4,764  miles.  The  estimates  on  which  this 
conclusion  is  based  are  given  in  the  subjoined  table. ^ 

'Of  the  followins  estimates,  those  of  Mr.  Cornier.  C.E..  Mr.  Taunton.  C.E.,  and 
Mr.  Lloyd,  C.E.,  were  prepared  for  the  select  committee  on  canals.  1SS3  ;  that  of 
Mr.  Wells,  C.K.,  for  the  Birminsham  Conference,  1898.  on  Inland  Navigation, 
organized  by  the  Institution  of  Mining  Engineers ;  and  that  of  the  late  Mr.  Ver- 
non Ilarcourt,  C.E.,  is  contained  in  a  paper  on  the  subject  read  before  the  Society 
of  Arts.  1800.  To  these  might  be  added,  did  space  permit,  an  estimate  of  the 
Irish  waterway  system  contained  in  the  report  of  a  commission  on  the  subject,  of 
1882,  which  gives  the  total  extent  as  708  miles.  20  chains  : 

(228) 


Inland  ll'atcncays  of  Great  Britain 


229 


Character  and  Development  of  the  System 

The  bases  of  this  system  have  in  each  of  the  three  kingdoms 
been  suppHed  by  their  numerous  navigable  rivers,  which,  owing  to 
the  neglected  state  of  the  roads  after  the  decay  of  the  old  Roman 
highway  system,  formed  the  principal  means  of  transport  until  the 
introduction  of  the  turnpike  roads.  The  tidal  coast  line  of  Great 
Britain  is  3,900  miles  in  extent  and  greater  than  that  of  any  other 
country  in  Europe,  and,  as  has  been  pointed  out  by  the  late  Mr. 
Vernon  Harcourt,  the  tidal  wave  which  traverses  the  British  coasts 
places  these  rivers,  which,  owing  to  their  small  drainage  areas,, 
would  otherwise  be  of  no  value  for  ocean  navigation,  on  a  par 
with  the  largest  of  those  of  other  countries.  The  Thames,  for 
instance,  with  a  basin  of  1-82  that  of  the  Danube,  afifords  superior 
facilities  for  navigation  at  high  water  between  the  sea  and  London 
to  that  of  the  Sulina  mouth.  The  Mersey,  with  a  basin  only  1-722 
that  of  the  Mississippi,  is  as  accessible  at  high  tide  up  to  Liverpool 
as  the  South  Pass.  The  navigable  channel  of  the  L^sk,  the  basin  of 
which  is  only  1-888  that  of  the  Volga,  has  nearly  double  the  depth, 
at  high  water  of  fair  neap  tides,  of  the  most  favorable  Volga 
outlet,  and  about  three  times  the  present  available  depth  in  that 
river  from  the  Caspian  Sea  up  to  Astrakhan.  The  Ribble  is  of 
more  use  for  navigation  than  the  Rhone,  though  its  basin  is  only 
1-58  that  of  the  latter  river;  and  in  earlier  times  this  tidal  wave 
penetrated  much  further  inland  and  the  navigation  of  the  rivers 
flowing  into  the  Wash  was  so  good  that  as  late  as  1649  the  now 

Mr.  Taunton. 
Board  of  Trade.        Mr.  Couder.  1883  fEnfcland,  Wales 

Return  1883.  1883.  and  Scotland  only]. 

England  and  Wales  2688  ( f  o?o  tt      .  Po^J    i      .-  . 

I  1878  Feeders.  (    371  derelict. 

Scotland 85  3.54  190 

Ireland 256  755 

Total 3029  7320  3012 

Mr.  T.lovd.  Mr.  Wells. 

1883  [Kngland       1895  (Enclantl  Mr.  Vernon  Harcourt. 

and  Wales].  and  Wales].  1899. 

England  and  Wales               l^Hz^       ,-  .  I '^^T -    i       i-  .                     3374 

t    308  derelict.  1    41o  derelict. 

Scotland 120 

Ireland 610 

Total 4050  4335  4106 

To  those  estimn(os  may  he  added  that  of  Mr.  Rudolph  do  Sails  for  KuRland 
and  Wales  as  given  in  Bradshaw's  Canals  and  Navigable  Rivers  of  England  and 
Wales,  where  the  mileajre  for  those  countries  is  given  as  3,915  miles,  842  miles  of 
which  are  tidal  and  3,073  non-tidal. 


230  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

insignificant  port  of  Lynn  supplied  six  counties  wlioUy  and  three 
partially  with  imports  from  the  continent. 

Early  Developments 

During  the  seventeenth  century  this  system  of  natural  water- 
ways was  developed  by  a  series  of  acts  of  Parliament  empowering 
private  individuals  and  bodies  of  individuals  to  improve  the  navi- 
gation of  rivers  and  to  make  others  not  previously  so,  navigable. 
This  movement  was  followed  by  the  initiation  by  Brindley  in 
1795  of  what  may  be  termed  the  "canal  era,"  during  which  all  the 
navigable  rivers  of  the  kingdom  were  gradually  connected  with 
each  other  by  means  of  a  network  of  canals  constructed  by  private 
enterprise  in  order  to  provide  for  the  needs  of  different  localities. 
In  England  and  Wales  the  development  of  inland  navigation, 
which  began  in  1423  with  an  act  for  removing  obstructions  in  the 
Thames,  may  be  said  to  have  practically  ended  with  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal  in  1894,  and  has  thus  ex- 
tended over  four  and  a  half  centuries.  In  Ireland  it  began  only 
in  171 5,  with  the  improvement  of  the  Maigue  River,  and  ended 
with  the  completion  of  the  Ballinamore  Canal  in  1859;  and  in 
Scotland  it  was  limited  to  the  eighty-eight  years  between  the 
passing  of  the  first  Clyde  improvement  act  in  1759,  and  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Caledonian  Canal  in  1847. 

J'arieties  of  IVaterivays 

It  has,  however,  proceeded  on  the  same  lines  in  each  of  the 
three  kingdoms,  the  inland  navigation  systems  of  each  of  which 
include  the  three  following  varieties  of  waterway: 

(i)  Tidal  navigable  rivers,  the  soil  of  the  bed  of  which  is 
vested  in  the  Crown  for  the  benefit  of  the  public,  and  on  which  all 
the  subjects  of  the  Crown  enjoy  the  right  of  free  navigation. 

(2)  Nontidal  rivers  w^hich  have  been  made  navigable,  and 
tidal  rivers  the  navigation  of  which  above  the  tideway  has  been 
improved  under  an  act  of  Parliament,  the  ownership  of  the  soil  of 
which  is.  in  both  cases,  for  the  purposes  of  navigation  only,  vested 
in  commissioners  or  conservators  appointed  under  the  act  who  are 
entitled  to  demand  tolls  for  the  use  of  the  river,  which  are  dcvotc-l 
solely  to  the  maintenance  of  the  navigation. 

(3)  Canals   constructed   by   private   enterprise   by   companies 


Inland  H'atcncays  of  Great  Britain  231 

incorporated  under  special  acts,  who  are  the  sole  owners  of  their 
respective  undertakings  and  are  entitled  to  all  the  profits  accruing 
from  the  tolls  payable  under  these  acts  by  the  public  for  their  use. 

State  Ozvnership  and  Control 

In  England  and  Wales  state  ownership  of  waterways  is  lim- 
ited to  the  soil  of  the  bed  of  tidal  rivers,  as  above  mentioned,  and 
the  state  has  never  contributed  in  any  way  to  the  development  of 
water  conservancy.  In  both  Scotland  and  Ireland,  however,  it  has 
not  only  made  large  grants  from  the  treasury  for  this  purpose — 
the  total  expenditure  on  the  Caledonian  Canal  in  the  former  coun- 
try, for  instance,  amounted  to  £1,280,000,  and  the  grants  for  the 
Royal  Canal  of  Ireland  to  £359,776 — but  is  also  the  owner  of  the 
Caledonian  Canal  (constructed  entirely  by  it)  and  the  Crinan 
Canal  in  Scotland  and  of  the  Maigue,  Boyne,  Tyrone  and  Shannon 
River  navigations  in  Ireland,  where  it  also  originally  owned  both 
the  Grand  and  the  Ulster  Canals.  The  Board  of  Trade  is  the 
central  authority  for  the  control  of  inland  navigation,  and  has  the 
power  of  providing  for  the  inspection  of  waterways,  the  condition 
of  which  is  dangerous  to  the  public,  or  liable  to  cause  obstruction 
to  traffic,  and  for  their  transfer  to  local  authorities,  or,  if  neces- 
sary, their  abandonment.  English  canal  companies  are  also  re- 
quired to  send  to  the  registrar  of  joint  stock  companies  annual 
returns  stating  the  address  of  the  office  and  principal  officers  of 
the  company ;  and  the  governing  authorities  of  all  waterways  are 
under  the  obligation  of  furnishing  the  Board  of  Trade,  when  re- 
quired to  do  so,  with  particulars  respecting  their  works,  capacity 
for  traffic  and  capital,  revenue,  expenditure  and  profits.^  The 
Caledonian  and  Crinan  Canals  in  Scotland  are  controlled  by  com- 
missioners appointed  by  the  Crown,  and  those  owned  by  the  state 
in  Ireland  by  the  commissioners  of  public  works  in  that  country, 
and  both  of  these  bodies  report  annually  to  Parliament. 

Conseri'ancy  Authorities 

The  governing  bodies  of  the  different  waterways  comprised 
in  the  British  inland  navigation  system  vary  very  greatly  both  in 
size  and  constitution,  and  in  addition  to  the  canal  companies  include 
bodies   of   conservators,   commissioners,   port   and   harbor   authori- 

'Tliis    power    has    been    exercised    I)y    the    board    only    twice    since    it    was    first 
conferred  on  it  by  the  Railway   and   Canal   Traffic  Act,   1888. 


232  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

ties  and  municipal  corporations.  The  conservancy  authorities  of 
a  few  of  the  more  important  rivers  are  of  a  representative  char- 
acter. The  conservators  of  the  River  Thames,  for  instance,  are 
thirty-eight  in  number  and  include  representatives  of  the  Admiralty 
and  two  other  government  departments,  of  the  city  and  the  county 
of  London,  of  the  London  Water  Board,  and  of  the  county  or 
borough  councils  of  the  eleven  counties  traversed  by  the  river.  The 
thirty  commissioners  of  the  Severn  represent  the  counties  of 
Gloucestershire  and  Worcestershire,  and  the  corporations  of  all 
the  towns  on  the  banks  of  the  river  from  Bristol  to  Wenlock  in 
Salop,  while  the  tidal  portions  of  both  the  Mersey  and  the  Clyde 
are  controlled  by  trusts  on  which  the  municipalities  of  Liverpool 
and  Glasgow  are  largely  represented,  as  well  as  the  conservators 
of  the  navigation  of  those  rivers. 

Groups  of  JVatcrways  in  England 

The  waterways  of  England  and  Wales  are  divisible  into  six- 
groups,  one  of  which  has  its  center  in  Birmingham,  while  the  other 
five  unite  wholly  or  partially  in  the  estuaries  of  the  liumber, 
Mersey,  Wash,  Thames  and  Severn.  The  Thames  and  Severn  are 
united  by  648  miles  of  waterway;  the  Thames  and  Humber  by 
537  miles ;  the  Severn  and  Mersey  by  832  miles  and  the  Mersey  and 
Humber  by  680  miles,  while  the  ten  waterways  flowing  into  the 
Wash  have  an  extent  of  431  miles.  London  is  connected  with  Liver- 
pool by  three  through  routes,  with  Hull  by  tzvo  and  with  the 
Severn  ports  by  four;  Liverpool  with  the  Severn  ports  by  tzvo,  with 
Hull  by  three,  with  the  South  Staffordshire  mineral  districts  by 
two;  and  the  last  named  districts  with  the  Severn  ports  by  three 
routes.  Though,  however,  nine  of  these  nineteen  through  routes 
terminate  in  the  Severn  ports  and  nine  in  London  as  against  ten  in 
Liverpool  and  five  in  Hull,  the  southern  waterways  arc  now  of  far 
less  importance  than  those  of  the  northern  counties.  No  less  than 
23,500,000  tons  of  37,426,886  which  according  to  the  Board  of 
Trade  returns.  1898,  was  the  total  traffic  on  English  and  Welsh 
waterways  in  that  year,  was  concentrated  round  an  area  bounded 
by  the  Birmingham  and  Shrojishirc  LTnion  Canals,  the  Leeds  and 
Liverpool  Canal,  the  Aire  and  Caldcr  Navigation,  the  l^on  Naviga- 
tion, a  line  from  Shefifield  to  Stoke,  and  the  Trent  and  ATcrsev  Navi- 
gation— a  mining  and   manufacturing   district,   the   waterways   of 


Inland  Jralcrzcays  of  Great  Britain  233 

which  have  a  united  length  of  only  642  miles.  The  traffic  of  the 
Birniinghani  canals  amounts  to  7,750,000  tons ;  that  of  three 
other  systems  of  waterways  within  this  area  to  between  2,000,000 
and  3,000,000  tons;  that  of  three  to  between  1,000,000  and  2,000,000 
tons;  and  that  of  seven  to  between  500,000  and  1,000,000  tons. 
Only  tliree  waterways  within  this  district  have  less  than  100,000 
tons  traffic,  but  thc;  Grand  Junction  Canal  is  the  only  waterway 
extending  into  the  southern  counties  which  has  a  traffic  exceeding 
1,000,000  tons,  and  only  three  (the  Stafford  and  Worcester  Canal, 
the  River  Lea  and  the  Thames  between  Oxford  and  London)  have 
a  traffic  exceeding  500,000  tons. 

Scott ish   I  Va te rzvays 

In  Scotland,  though  the  Tay — navigable  for  95  miles  up  to 
Perth  for  vessels  of  200  tons — the  Tweed  and  the  Dee  have  been 
utilized  for  purposes  of  navigation,  the  Clyde  and  the  Forth  are 
the  only  two  navigable  rivers  of  importance.  The  country  possesses 
only  five  canals,  two  of  which,  the  Caledonian  and  the  Crinan, 
though  remarkable  as  engineering  works,  have  proved  of  little 
value  for  purposes  of  trade,  and  in  1898,  when  the  total  traffic 
amounted  to  only  1,223.304  tons,  the  only  waterways  having  a 
traffic  exceeding  100,000  tons  were  the  Forth  and  Clyde  Naviga- 
tion and  the  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  Union  Canals.  Scotland, 
however,  possesses  special  advantages  as  regards  inland  navigation 
in  the  extent  and  number  of  its  navigable  lakes  and  in  the  fact  that 
the  firths  of  its  two  principal  rivers — the  Forth  and  the  Clyde — 
are  not  separated  by  any  range  of  hills  and  penetrate  the  plain 
between  them  on  opposite  sides,  dividing  the  country,  the  breadth  of 
which  is  there  reduced  to  50  miles,  into  halves. 

Irish  IVaterii'ays 

Ireland,  which,  like  Scotland,  has  numerous  large  navigable 
lakes,  has  an  excellent  system  of  waterways,  which  comprises  both 
the  longest  river  and  one  of  the  most  extensive  canals  in  the  United 
Kingdom — the  Shannon,  143  of  the  256  miles  of  which  arc  navi- 
gable, and  the  Grand  Canal,  which  is  163  miles  long  and  has  ten 
branches.  Owing,  however,  probably  to  the  absence  of  manufac- 
turing and  mining  industries  in  the  country,  the  total  traffic  in  1898 
amounted  to  only  7o8,i74>4  tons,  309,288  tons  of  which  was  con- 


234  The  Annals  uf  the  American  Academy 

centrated  on  the  Grand  Canal,  which,  with  the  Lagan  Canal,  with 
a  traffic  of  171,784  tons,  are  the  only  two  on  which  the  traffic 
exceeded  100,000  tons,  while  the  Shannon,  with  83,688  tons,  was 
the  only  waterway  on  which  it  exceeded  50,000  tons. 

Principal  Rivers  of  the  United  Kingdom 

The  rivers  of  the  United  Kingdom  with  the  greatest  extent  of 
navigation  are  the  Thames,  215  miles  long,  which  is  navigable  for 
145  miles ;  the  Severn,  about  two-thirds  of  the  200  miles  of  which 
are  navigable ;  the  Shannon,  navigable  for  143  miles  out  of  its 
total  length  of  256  miles,  and  the  River  Forth,  in  Scotland,  which, 
though  only  72  miles  long,  is  navigable  for  50  miles.  The  short 
tidal  navigations  of  the  Tyne,  Wear,  Tees  and  Humber,  on  the 
east  side  of  the  Clyde,  Mersey,  Ribble  and  Bristol  Avon  on  the  west 
coast,  though  none  of  them  much  exceed  20  miles  in  -length,  are, 
however,  of  far  greater  importance  for  commercial  purposes. 

The  Manchester  Ship  Canal 

The  most  important  of  the  British  canals,  both  commercially 
and  from  an  engineering  point  of  view,  is  the  Manchester  Ship 
Canal,  begun  in  1885  and  opened  for  traffic  on  May  21,  1895,  on 
which  £15,173,402  was  expended — a  total  which  included  £1,786,- 
313  paid  for  the  Bridgwater  Canal  and  £1,214,451  for  compensa- 
tion paid  to  various  bodies  possessing  vested  interests  in  the  land 
it  traverses.  The  canal,  which  is  35^  miles  long  and  from  which 
no  less  than  53,000,000  cubic  yards  of  soil  were  excavated,^  con- 
sists of  three  sections.  The  first  of  these  runs  from  Eastham  to 
Runcorn,  near  or  through  the  Mersey  estuary,  a  distance  of  \2Y^ 
miles,  and  is  provided  with  three  tidal  locks  with  chambers  600 
feet  by  80  feet,  350  feet  by  50  feet,  and  150  feet  by  30  feet,  with 
sills  28  feet.  25  feet  and  16  feet,  respectively,  below  the  normal 
water  level  of  the  canal.  The  second  section  runs  from  Runcorn 
to  Latchford,  near  Warrington,  8>4  miles,  where  it  is  inland,  but 
in  which  the  level  of  the  water  as  in  the  first  section  is  raised  by 
the  tides;  and  the  third  from  Latchford — where  the  locks  stop  the 
tidal  action  and  the  canal  is  fed  by  the  IMersey  and  Trwell  up  to 
Manchester.  One  of  the  most  notable  features  of  the  work  is  the 
swing  aqueduct   for   the   Bridgwater   Canal,   the   first  of   its   kind, 

'Ninety-seven    excavsitors.    ei^ht    l:ii7:<'    Imckct    ladder    dredgers    and    fifty-eight 
steam   navvies   were  employed  on    the  work   besides   some  small   dredgers. 


Inland  IVatcnvays  of  Great  Britain  235 

by  means  of  which,  when  closed,  traffic  can  pass  along  the  latter 
canal  as  heretofore,  but  which  can  be  opened  to  allow  of  ships 
crossing  it  on  the  lower  level  of  the  ship  canal.  This  aqueduct, 
constructed  by  Sir  E.  Leader  Williams  to  replace  that  built  by 
Brindley  136  years  previously,  was  the  first  fixed  aqueduct  con- 
structed in  the  United  Kingdom.  It  may  be  added  that  the  Man- 
chester Ship  Canal  is  the  first  large  ship  canal  constructed  with 
locks  raising  vessels  6oj^  feet  and  transporting  them  inland. 

TJie  Caledonian  Canal 

Though  it  failed  to  realize  the  main  objects  for  which  it  was 
constructed,  the  Caledonian  Canal,  having  regard  to  the  physical 
difficulties  overcome  in  its  construction  and  the  period  at  which  it 
was  made,  must  be  regarded  as  being  scarcely  less  remarkable  as 
an  engineering  feat  than  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal.  Its  length 
is  60  miles,  37;^  miles  of  which  consist  of  four  naturally  navigable 
freshwater  lochs  connected  by  a  series  of  canals  23  miles  in  length, 
and  it  extends  diagonally  across  Scotland  from  Fort  William  on  the 
Atlantic  to  Clachnaharry  on  the  shore  of  Beauly  Firth  on  the 
North  Sea.  and  thus  provides  a  means  of  enabling  vessels  to  avoid 
the  dangers  and  delays  incident  to  the  500-mile  voyage  by  the 
Orkneys  and  Cape  Wrath.  There  are  docks  both  at  Corpach  and 
Clachnaharry,  the  latter  of  which  cover  an  area  of  ^i^  acres,  and 
one  of  its  most  remarkable  features  is  a  series  of  eight  connected 
locks,  called  by  Telford  "Neptune's  Staircase,"  constructed  to  over- 
come the  difficulty  caused  by  the  difference  in  the  levels  between 
Lochs  Lochy  and  Eil,  which,  though  the  distance  is  only  18  miles, 
amounts  to  90  feet.  The  canal  is  one  of  the  finest  monuments  of 
Telford's  genius,  and  is  also  notable  as  the  only  British  waterway 
which  has  been  constructed  entirely  at  the  cost  of  and  has  always 
remained  under  the  control  of  the  state. 

The  Grand  Canal  of  Ireland 

The  total  expenditure  by  the  state  on  the  Caledonian  Canal 
was  £1.300,000  and  it  also  contributed  £321,674  out  of  the  £1,370,- 
000  expended  on  the  Grand  Canal  in  Ireland,  which  is  the  most 
important  waterway  in  that  country,  and  though  its  total  length 
of  163  miles  is  exceeded  by  that  of  the  Shropshire  Union,  which 
is  200  miles  long,  it  is,  as  has  been  said,  the  most  extensive  water- 


236  The  Annals  of  the  A)nei'ieaii  Academy 

way  in  the  United  Kingdom.  It  extends  southwards  from  Dubhu 
to  New  Ross  in  Wesford  and  westward  to  the  Shannon  Harbor, 
where  the  trade  boats  of  the  company  transship  into  steamers  plying 
northwards  to  Athlone  and  southwards  to  Limerick,  while  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Shannon  it  runs  to  Ballinasloe  and  has  no  less 
than  ten  branches  connecting  it  with  the  Liffey  and  various  trad- 
ing centers. 

Other  English    Canals   and    Their   Earnings 

Among  other  English  canals  the  next  in  length  to  the  Shrop- 
shire Union  are  the  Grand  Junction,  188  miles  long;  the  Birming- 
ham canals,  with  a  united  length  of  158  miles,  and  the  Leeds  and 
_  Liverpool  Canal,  141  miles  long.  The  Birmingham  canals  had, 
according  to  the  Board  of  Trade  returns,  1898,  the  highest  net 
revenue  earned  by  British  canals  in  that  year,  £119,193,  as  against 
£103.663  earned  by  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal;  while  the  third 
waterway  on  the  list  was  the  Aire  and  Calder  Navigation,  which, 
though  only  85  miles  long,  had  a  net  revenue  of  £92,057,  as  against- 
£50,642  earned  by  the  Leeds  and  Liverpool,  £48,840  earned  by  the 
Grand  Junction,  £23,613  by  the  Grand  Canal,  Ireland,  and  only 
£1,099  by  the  Shropshire  Union.  The  Aire  and  Calder  and  the 
Weaver  are  the  two  most  remunerative  of  the  river  navigations  of 
the  country,  and  over  1,000,000  tons  of  salt,  besides  a  considerable 
trade  with  the  potteries  in  coal,  timber,  cotton,  flint  and  clay  are 
annually  carried  over  the  latter  river,  which  has  been  canalized 
for  50  miles  between  Northwich  and  Chester,  and  has  four  large 
locks  220  feet  long  by  42  feet  6  inches  wide,  and  having  15  feet  of 
water  on  the  sills. 

Finaneial  Position  of  British  JVaterways  and  Its  Causes 

As  will  be  evident  from  the  above  figures,  a  large  portion  of 
the  inland  navigation  system  of  the  L^nited  Kingdom,  on  which 
/  £14,000,000  had  been  expended  up  to  1830,  has  ceased  to  be  re- 
munerative. No  less  than  39  out  of  the  99  waterways  of  England 
and  Wales  were  shown  by  the  return  of  1898  to  be  carried  on  at 
loss,  and  of  the  126  waterways  \n  the  United  Kingdom  only  tivo 
earned  net  incomes  exceeding  £100,000.  Only  fweh'e  waterways 
earned  incomes  between  £10,000  and  £100,000,  and  only  fourteen  in- 
comes between  £1,000  and  £10,000.     Of  the  remainder  only  eleven 


■         OF   THE  \ 


»F   THE 

'ERSITY 


Inland  jratcrzcays  of  Great  Britain  237 

earned  incomes  exceeding  £500;  and,  though  the  impoverished 
condition  of  the  canal  companies  and  navigation  authorities  is 
partly  due  to  the  defective  and  obsolete  construction  of  a  majority 
of  the  waterways,  the  number  of  conflicting  authorities  by  which 
they  are  goveriieiU_a.ncL.  the  keen  competition  between  them, 
it^is' primarily  attributable  to  the  extensive  control  which  the  rail- 
way companiesjiavc  acquired  over  the  whole  of  the  inland  naviga- 
tion system. 

Raikvay  Control 

This  control  was  first  acquired   by  the   railway  companies  at 
the  lime  of  the  "railway  mania"  of  1845,  when  not  only  the  public, 
on  whose  investments  the  canal  companies  depended   for   support, 
but  also  the  companies  themselves  appear  to  have  simultaneously 
concluded  that  water  transport  was  about  to  be  permanently  super- 
seded by  the  new  invention.     Though  some  of  the  canal  companies 
were   still   paying  dividends  of  25,   26  and   30  per  cent,   many   of 
them   put   pressure    on    the    railway    companies   to   purchase    then- 
undertakings,  and  by  the  end  of  1846  the  latter  bodies  had  acquired 
possession  of  944  miles  of  waterway ;  the  ownership  of  nearly  one- 
third   of   the   waterways    in   England   and    Wales;   one-fourth   of 
those  in  Scotland,  and  more  than  one-sixth  of  those  in  Ireland  is 
now  divided  between  thirteen  railway  companies  in  England  and 
Wales,   two   in    Scotland,   and   one   in   Ireland.     Where   a   railway 
company  owns  an  entire  canal  it  can  regulate  the  traffic   for  the  , 
benefit  of  its  railway,  and  where  it  owns  only  a  portion  of  it,   it 
can   fetter  the  traffic  on  the  other  portions  ;  and  as  almost  every  ' 
through  water  route  has  links  in  it  under  the  control  of  a  railway 
companv,  the  railway  companies,  each  of  which  exercises  sole  con- 
trol  over   its   own   through   route,   are   enabled   to   manipulate   the 
traffic  on  the  majority  of  waterways  as  they  please.     By  charging 
excessive  tolls,  keeping  their  canals  narrow,  and  making  rules  to 
fetter  traders  who  attempt  to  convey  their  goods  entirely  by  water, 
they  have  induced  what  the  late  ^Ir.  Couder.  R.E.,  termed  a  state 
of  "creeping  paralvsis"  among  canal  companies,  the  impoverished 
condition  of  which,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  renders  it  impossible 
for  them  to  attempt  the  improvements  necessary  to  enable  them  to 
compete  with  their  wealthier  rivals. 


2:^6  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

Defective  Condition  of  JVaterzvays 

Owing  to  the  neglect  of  inland  navigation  for  over  three- 
quarters  of  a  century  the  greater  number  of  canals  still  retain  their 
original  form  of  construction  and  are  practically  enlarged  ditches, 
with  a  top  water  of  about  30  feet  and  a  bottom  of  14  feet  and  with 
inclined  slopes  on  either  side — a  form  which  produces  a  tendency  to 
fill  up  at  the  bottom,  with  a  consequent  variation  in  the  depth  of  tFie 
waterway  in  different  canals,  which  is  a  serious  impediment  to 
traffic.  In  many  cases  both  the  locks  and  the  canals  themselves 
are  too  narrow  to  allow  boats  to  pass  each  other  properly,  while 
throughout  Great  Britain,  and  especially  in  England  and  Wales, 
there  are  scarcely  two  canals  that  have  a  common  gauge,  and  in 
some  cases  two  or  three  different  gauges  of  locks  are  to  be  found 
upon  the  same  canal.  Only  20  per  cent  of  the  independent  water- 
ways can  admit  craft  that  would  enable  them  to  realize  the  full 
value  of  economical  transport.  While  there  are  1,240  miles  of 
canals  designed  for  boats  carrying  cargoes  of  from  18  to  30  tons, 
and  Calder  and  the  Weaver,  have  been  sufficiently  enlarged  and 
and  2,040  miles  adapted  for  boats  carrying  cargoes  of  40  to  60 
tons,  there  are  only  230  miles  of  waterways  which,  like  the  Aire,  are 
improved  to  accommodate  boats  carrying  from  90  to  350  tons. 
Some  of  the  waterways  under  public  trusts,  and  especially  the  more 
important  rivers,  such  as  the  Thames,  Severn,  Lea,  Clyde,  Forth 
and  Shannon,  have  been  considerably  improved,  but  the  majority 
of  these  are  much  in  the  same  position  as  those  dependent  upon 
private  enterprise. 

Defects  of  Organi:^ation  and  Competition 

In  addition  to  the  two  causes  which  have  just  been  discussed, 
waterways  have  suffered  from  the  want  of  enterprise  and  of  the 
capacity  for  concerted  action  among  canal  companies,  to  which 
the  railway  companies  largely  owe  their  success,  and  from  the 
number  of  conflicting  authorities  by  which  the  majority  of  river 
navigations  are  governed.  While  the  ownership  of  22,455  niiles 
of  railway  in  the  United  Kingdom  is  shared  between  some  thirty- 
eight  companies,  each  of  which  governs  its  own  through  route, 
that  of  the  3,321  miles  of  waterway  which  remain  independent  of 
railway  control  is  divided  amongst  more  than  double  that  number 
of  canal  companies  and  navigation  trustees.     Not  one  of  the  nine- 


Inland  IVatenvays  of  Great  Britain  239 

teen  through  routes  by  water  in  England  and  Wales  has  the  advan-  ( 
tage  of  being  under  a  single  body.  There  are,  including  the  au- 
thorities of  the  navigable  tideways  such  as  the  Mersey,  Severn 
and  Humber,  tzvcnty-six  different  bodies  which  compete  with 
each  other  on  the  three  through  routes  connecting  London  and 
Liverpool.  There  are  twenty-seven  on  the  four  between  London 
and  Bristol,  ten  on  the  three  between  Birmingham  and  Bristol,  and 
the  same  number  on  the  three  between  Hull  and  Liverpool.  The 
commissioners  of  the  Severn  control  only  42  miles  of  its  total 
length  of  250  miles  and  the  only  conservancy  authority  on  the 
Trent,  which  is  167  miles,  exercises  jurisdiction  over  only  73  miles; 
but  the  57  miles  of  the  Kennet  and  Avon  are  controlled  by  four 
different  authorities,  the  31  miles  tidal  portion  of  the  Nen  by  eight 
public  bodies,  and  the  Witham,  which  is  between  80  and  90  miles 
long,  by  seventeen  different  sets  of  commissioners.  Water  trans- 
port'in  the  United  Kingdom  is,  therefore,  seriously  impeded  both 
by  the  defective  administration  arising  from  this  multiplicity  of 
authorities  and  also  by  the  keen  competition  for  traffic  between  the 
canal  companies,  which  have  hitherto  entirely  ignored  the  facilities 
offered  to  them  under  the  Railway  and  Canal  Traffic  Act,  1888, 
for  establishing  a  clearing  system  analogous  to  that  which  has  so 
greatly  benefited  the  British  railway  companies. 

Revived  Interest  in  Inland  Navigation 

The  defective  condition  of  British   waterways  has  long  been 

generally  recognized,  and  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  there 

has  been  a  revival  of  public  interest  in  the  subject  as  well  as  in 

those  of  water  supply,  fishery  and  other  kindred  branches  of  water 

conservancy. 

Inland  navigation  has  been  discussed  from  time  to  time  by 
bodies  like  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  the  Society  of  Arts 
and  the  Associated  Chambers  of  Commerce  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
and  more  especially  at  the  meeting  of  the  British  Association  at  Dub- 
lin in  1878,  and  at  conferences  organized  by  the  Society  of  Arts  in 
London  in  1888,  and  by  the  Institution  of  Mining  Engineers  at 
Birmingham  in  1895.  A  very  valuable  paper,  for  which  the  Tel- 
ford gold  medal  was  awarded,  was  read  before  the  Institution 
of  Civil  Engineers,  in  May.  1905,  by  M.  J.  A.  Sauer.  M.  Inst.  C.  E.. 
in  which  he  advocated  that  main  trunk  canals  should  be  constructed 


240  The  Ajuials  of  tJic  American  Academy 

for  conveying  cargoes  of  not  less  than  250  to  300  tons  at  a  time  for 
the  more  important  cross-country  routes,  with  locks,  230  feet  bv 
22  feet,  with  6  feet  6  inches  water  on  the  sills,  and  vertical  lifts 
13  feet  by  17  feet,  with  6  feet  6  inches  where  required.  "The  Im- 
provements required  in  Inland  Navigation,"  also  furmed  the  subject 
of  a  paper,  by  Henry  Rudolph  de  Salis,  Asso.  M.  Inst.  C.  E., 
read  at  the  general  meeting  at  London  of  the  Institution  of  Mining 
Engineers  on  June  15,  1907,  in  which  the  author,  who  has  person- 
ally inspected  the  whole  of  the  inland  navigations  of  England 
and  Wales,  urged  that  the  primary  essentials  for  their  improve- 
ment are  the  selection  of  such  as  are  likely  to  repay  development, 
and  the  reorganization  of  the  authorities  controlling  them.  Various 
"canal  projects,"  none  of  which,  however,  have  yet  been  adopted, 
have  been  from  time  to  time  placed  before  the  public — such  as  the 
construction  of  a  national  canal  capable  of  accommodating  steam 
barges  to  connect  the  Thames  and  the  Mersey  ;*  ship  canals,  con- 
necting Goole  and  Shefifield,  and  between  the  Mersey  and  Birming- 
ham f  a  canal  connecting  Birmingham  wnth  the  Trent  and  the 
North  Sea ;  and  an  improved  waterway  between  the  Midlands  and 
the  Thames.  The  revived  interest  in  waterways  has  also  borne 
practical  fruit  in  the  construction  of  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal, 
the  most  important  event  in  the  history  of  British  waterways  since 
the  opening  of  the  Bridgwater  Canal — the  success  of  which  has 
itself  tended  to  encourage  canal  enterprise.  It  has  been  evidenced 
by  the  amalgamation,  in  1894,  of  the  Berkley  Ship  Canal  and  three 
other  inland  canals*'  under  the  Sharpness  New  Rocks  and  Gloucester 
and  Birmingham  Navigation  Company,  and  by  a  similar  amalga- 
mation in  Ireland  of  the  Ulster,  Coal  Island  and  Lagan  canals 
under  the  Lagan  Navigation  Company.  Its  influence  may  also 
be  traced  in  the  purchase,  about  the  same  time,  of  the  Grand  Union 
of  Leicester  and  the  Northants  Union  canals  by  the  Grand  Junction 
Canal  Company,  and  by  the  acquisition  by  that  canal,  by  arrange- 
ment of  tolls  between  Birmingham  and  London,  and  in  the  pur- 
chase, in  1895,  t>y  the  Shefifield  and  South  Yorkshire  Navigation 
Company   from   the   Manchester   and    Sheffield   Railway   Company, 

■•Advocated  by  Mr.   S.  IJoyd,  CE.,  in  n  pamphlet  published  in  188.5. 
'Connecting   with    tlie   Manchester   Sliip    Canal    and   the   Mersey   by   way   of   the 
Weaver. 

"The  Worcester  and    Birmingham,   Droitwich    Junction,    and   Droitwich   Canals. 


Inland  JVatcnvays  of  Great  Britain  241 

of  the  Don  Navigation,  which  connects  Sheffield,  Rotherham,  Barns- 
ley  and  Doncaster  with  the  Trent  at  Keadby  and  the  Ouse  at  Goole. 
In  addition  to  this,  public  interest  in  the  question  has  been  shown 
by  the  passing,  as  early  as  1882,  of  a  resolution  at  the  annual  meet- 
ing of  the  Associated  Chambers  of  Commerce  advocating  the  entire 
emancipation  of  canals  from  the  control  of  railway  companies, 
and  during  recent  years  by  a  series  of  such  resolutions  passed  both 
by  individual  chambers  and  by  the  Associated  Chambers  of  Com- 
merce of  the  United  Kingdom  in  favor  of  the  nationalization  of 
waterways. 

Associated  Chambers  of  Commerce  and  Nationalization  of 
IVaterzvays 

The  most  important  resolution  on  the  latter  subject  was  one 
passed  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Associated  Chambers  at  Man- 
chester on  December  4,  1904,  that:— "in  view  of  the  urgent  neces- 
sity of  cheapening  the  cost  of  the  internal  transit  of  goods,"  and 
of  the  benefit  to  the  community  that  must  accrue  from  the  devel- 
opment of  inland  navigation,  "this  association,  being  of  opinion 
that  the  best  results  can  only  be  obtained  through  unity  of  manage- 
ment, strongly  urges  that  the  waterways  of  the  United  Kingdom 
should  be  acquired  by  the  state  or  by  a  suitably  constituted  national 
trust."  This  resolution,  which  was  submitted  by  the  Liverpool 
and  Manchester  chambers— both  of  which  had  in  1882  declined 
to  sign  the  resolution  in  favor  of  emancipating  canals  from  railway 
control— was  subsequently  modified  by  tlie  addition  that  there 
should  be  a  "government  guarantee,  supervision  and  control  of  any 
national  trust  constituted  for  the  purpose,  and  in  this  form  was 
supported  by  sixty-one  and  opposed  by  forty  of  the  Chambers  rep- 
resented, but  was  rendered  ineffective  by  'the  fact  that  a  two- 
thirds  majority  had  not  been  obtained  in  its  favor.  As,  however, 
the  association  had  similarly  advocated  the  compulsory  purchase 
of  canals  by  the  government  at  five  of  its  meetings,  and  resolu- 
tions to  this  efifect  have  been  since  1904  passed  by  various  provin- 
cial chambers  and  discussed  by  the  London  Chamber  of  Commerce, 
it  is  evident  that  there  is  a  substantial  body  of  public  opinion  in 
favor  of  the  suggestion. 


242  The  Aiuials  uf  tlic  A))iericaii  Academy 

The  Canal   Trusts  Bill,   ipOj 

The  principle  of  the  second  portion  of  the  Manchester  reso- 
lution was  subsequently  embodied  in  the  Canal  Trusts  Bill,  1905, 
which  was  introduced  into  Parliament  by  Mr.  Rowland  H.  Bowan, 
the  Liberal  member  for  North  Leeds,  for  the  establishment  of  a 
canal  trust  "to  acquire,  develop,  and  extend  and  administer  in  the 
public  interest  canals  and  navigations  in  England  and  Wales.  This 
measure,  which  was  supported  by  thirteen  members,  belonging  to 
the  three  political  parties  in  the  House  of  Commons  and  represent- 
ing constituencies  in  the  northern  and  midland  counties,  Scotland 
and  Ireland,  proposed  to  incorporate  a  body  of  twenty-nine  trustees, 
twenty-one  of  whom  were  to  be  appointed  by  the  treasury  and 
other  government  departments,  and  the  remaining  eight  by  various 
port  authorities,  Chambers  of  Commerce  and  other  kindred  asso- 
ciations. This  body  was  to  be  empowered  to  purchase  the  Bir- 
mingham and  twelve  other  canals  and  two  river  navigations  for 
the  purpose  of  organizing  a  through  system  of  communication  be- 
tween London,  Liverpool,  Hull  and  Bristol,  and  also  subsequently 
to  acquire  other  canals  and  navigations  by  agreement  or  by  a 
provisional  order  from  the  Board  of  Trade.  Owing,  however,  to 
the  neglect  of  its  promoters  to  comply  with  the  regulation  requiring 
bills  of  this  description  to  be  advertised  in  the  London  Gazette 
this  measure  had  to  be  withdrawn  before  Parliament  had  had  the 
opportunity  of  pronouncing  an  opinion  upon  it. 

The  Respective  Merits  of  "Nationalization"  and  "Canal  Trusts" 

\  "Nationalization"  and  "Canal  Trusts"  may  be  said  to  be  the 

only  two  schemes  for  the  improvement  of  British  waterways  which 
at  present  find  favor  with  the  public.  The  first,  though  theoreti- 
cally attractive,  is  open  to  the  objections  that  it  is  likely  to  be  op- 
posed by  the  more  prosperous  canal  companies,  and,  which  is 
more  important,  that  Parliament  is  not  likely  to  be  favorably 
disposed  to  a  plan  entailing  a  very  heavy  expenditure  for  the  ac- 
quisition of  waterways,  the  capacity  of  which  for  yielding  a  revenue 
sufificient  for  their  upkeep  is,  to  say  the  least,  extremely  problematical. 
Canal  trusts  are  also,  no  doubt,  likely  to  be  opposed  on  the  grounds 
that  they  interfere  with  the  rights  of  private  enterprise  and  neces- 
sitate the  grant  of  public  money  for  an  uncertain  object ;  but  they 


Inland  PVatenoays  of  Great  Britain  243 

have  the  merits  of  providing  for  the  transfer  of  the  control  of  our 
waterways  from  a  number  of  competing  bodies  to  a  representative 
central  authority,  and  of  being  organizations  capable  of  tentative 
introduction  and  gradual  extension. 

Extension  of  the  Poivers  of  the  Board  of  Trade 

In  default  of  the  adoption  of  either  of  these  schemes,  much 
might  be  effected  in  the  improvement  of  British  inland  naviga- 
tion by  an  extension  of  the  supervisory  powers  of  the  Board  of 
Trade,  which  is  the  central  authority  for  waterways,  if  canal  com- 
panies and  navigation  authorities  would  adopt  the  principle  of  co- 
operation in  lieu  of  that  of  competition,  and  like  the  railway  com- 
panies, endeavor  to  fit  their  respective  undertakings  for  through 
traffic  by  the  establishment  of  a  minimum  gauge  for  waterways 
and  locks  and  of  standard  traffic  rates.  It  must,  however,  be  added 
that,  as  has  been  pointed  out  by  the  present  writer  and  his  co- 
author Mr.  Ashford  in  their  recently  published  work  on  British 
waterways,^  the  question  of  the  improvement  of  inland  navigation 
is  intimately  bound  up  with  that  of  water  supply.  Canal  companies 
and  water  companies  now  compete  with  each  other  for  sources  of 
supply,  and  it  has  been  recently  demonstrated  both  by  the  Salmon 
Fisheries  Commission,  1902,  and  the  Sewage  Disposal  Commission, 
1898,  in  their  third  report,  issued  in  1903,  that  the  indiscriminate 
selection  of  their  sources  of  water  supply  by  companies  and  munic- 
ipalities and  the  reckless  waste  of  water  through  mining  opera- 
tions have  seriously  diminished  the  volume  of  rivers  and  dried  up 
many  of  the  springs  and  wells  which  furnish  rural  water  supply 
and  feed  canals.  The  two  above  commissions  have  agreed  in  re- 
commending the  establishment  of  a  central  water  authority  for 
dealing  with  this  question,  as  well  as  for  controlling  fisheries  and 
checking  pollution,  and  it  is  one  which  cannot  safely  be  neglected 
in  any  scheme  which  would  tend  to  increase  the  demands  upon  the 
national  sources  of  supply  in  order  to  extend  the  inland  navigation 
system.  All  these  points  have  doubtless  been  fully  considered 
by  the  Royal  Commission  on  Canals,  which  is  now  sitting,  and 
the  report  of  which  is  expected  shortly  to  be  issued.  The  appoint- 
ment of  that  body  is  itself  the  most  recent  and  also  one  of  the  most 

'Our  Waterways,  by  Urquhart  A.  Forbes  and  W.  H.  R.  Ashford.     London :  John 
Murray,  1906. 


244  ^^^^  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

important  evidences  of  the  revival  of  public  interest  in  British 
v^aterways,  and  until  its  recommendations  have  been  made  public 
all  plans  for  their  improvement  must  be  regarded  as  purely  specu- 
lative. It  will  be  evident  from  the  foregoing  necessarily  imper- 
fect sketch  of  some  of  the  main  features  of  the  inland  navigation 
system  of  the  United  Kingdom  that  it  at  all  events  possesses 
possibilities  sufficient  to  render  such  an  improvement  eminently 
desirable. 

LIST  OF  AUTHORITIES. 

Stevenson,  David.     Principles  and  Practice  of  River  Engineering.  2d  ed.    1872. 

Mann,  S.  J.,  M.I.C.E.     River  Bars.     1881. 

Lloyd,  Samuel,  M.I.C.E.     England  Needs  Steam  Navigation.     1885. 

Jeans,  Stephen,  M.I.C.E.     JVaterways  and  Water  Transport.     1890. 

Wheeler,  W.  H.,  M.I.C.E.  Tidal  Rivers:  Their  Hydraulics,  Improvement 
and  Navigation.     1893. 

Harcourt,  L.  F.  Vernon,  M.I.C.E.     Rivers  and  Canals,  2d  ed.     1896. 

De  Sails,  H.  Rudolph.     A  Chronology  of  Inland  Navigation.     1897. 

Thompson,  W.  Gordon.     The  Canal  System  of  England. 

Coulson,  H.  J.  W.,  Forbes,  U.  A.  The  Laiv  of  Waters:  Sea,  Tidal  and 
Inland.    2nd  ed.     1902. 

De  Sails,  H.  Rudolph.  Bradshaw's  Canals  and  Navigable  Rivers  of  Eng- 
land and  Wales.     1904. 

Forbes,  Urquhart  A.,  and  Ashford,  W.  H.   R.     Our  Watern'ays.     1906. 

Report  of  the   House  of  Lords   Committee   on   Conservancy   Boards.      1877. 

Report  of  the   House  of  Lords   Committee   on   Thames   Floods    Prevention. 

1877. 
Report  of  the  Thames  Traffic  Committee.     1879. 
Report  of  the  Commissioners  appointed  to  inquire  respecting  the  system  of 

navigation    which   connects   Coleraine,   Belfast   and   Limerick.      1882. 
The  Board  of  Trade— Returns  made  to,  in  pursuance  of  section  39,  sub-section 

2,  of  the  Railway  and  Canal  Traffic  Act,  1888,  in  respect  of  the  Canals 

and  Navigations  in  the  United  Kingdom  for  1898. 
The  Board  of  Trade— Reports  made  to,  under  section  41  of  the  Railway  and 

Canal   Traffic   Act,   1888,   in  respect   of  the   River   Ouse  navigation,   the 

Kennet   and    Avon    Canal    navigation,    and    the    London    and    Hampshire 

Canal,  1891. 
Department    of    Agriculture    and    Technical     Instruction,    Ireland — Banking, 

Railway  and  Canal  Statistics.     1901. 
Report  of  the  Royal  Commissioners  appointed  in   1900  on   Salmon  Fisheries. 

1902. 
Third  Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  appointed  in    1898  on  Sewage  Dis- 
posal.    1903. 
Ninety-ninth  Report  of  the  Commissioners  of  the  Caledonian  Canal.     1904. 


Inland  IVatcncays  of  Great  Britain  245 

Society  of  Arts.  Notes  on  Previous  Inquiries  in  Connection  witli  the  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Congress  on  National  Water  Supply,  Sewage  and 
Health.     1878. 

Society  of  Arts.  Annual  Conference  on  National  Water  Supply,  Sewage 
and  Health.     1879. 

Institution  of  Civil  Engineers.     Proceedings.     1848,  et  seq. 

Society  of  Arts.  Report  of  the  Conference  on  Canals  and  Inland  Naviga- 
tion.    London,  1888. 

Institution  of  Mining  Engineers.  Report  of  the  Conference  on  Inland  Navi- 
gation.    Birmingham.     1895. 

Waterzi'ays  in  Great  Britain.  By  J.  A.  Sauer.  Minutes  and  Proceedings  of 
the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  1905,  Vol.  CLXIII,  p.  21.  ct  seq. 

Improvements  Required  in  Inland  Navigation.  Paper  read  before  the  Insti- 
tution of  Mining  Engineers,  June  13,   1907. 

Rees  Encyclopaedia.     1819. 

Encyclopaedia  Britannica. 

Smiles,  Samuel,  LL.D.    Lives  of  the  Engineers.     1861. 


THE   PRESENT    SIGNIFICANCE   OF   GERMAN    INLAND 

WATERWAYS^ 


By  Professor  Walther  Lotz, 
University  of  Munich,  Germany. 


A  clear  comprehension  of  the  present  importance  of  inland 
waterways  is  only  possible  when  the  different  kinds  are  clearly 
distinguished  from  one  another.  In  the  following  pages  the  ser- 
vice intended  for  sea-going  ships  including  waterways  for 
joining  the  two  seas,  such  as  the  Suez  Canal  and  the  North  Sea 
Canal,  will  not  be  considered.  The  lower  courses  of  large  rivers 
made  navigable  for  ocean  steamers,  such  as  the  Elbe  from  Hamburg 
down,  and  the  Weser  from  Bremen  to  the  sea,  will  not  be  treated, 
as  is  also  the  case  with  entirely  artificial  canals  which  make  inland 
towns  accessible  to  ocean  ships,  such  as  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal. 
That  these  artificial  and  improved  shipping  routes  can  compete 
in  the  age  of  railroads  and  play  an  important  economic  part  if 
technical  conditions  are  favorable,  is  at  the  present  time  beyond 
dispute. 

In  this  paper  only  those  inland  waterways  are  considered 
which  are  navigable  by  river  boats  and  not  primarily  for  sea-going 
steamships.  At  present  the  two  kinds  of  inland  waterways  are 
gradually  blending.  For  instance,  the  Rhine  from  Cologne  down 
is  available  primarily  for  river  boats,  and  for  that  reason  it  is  here 
included,  although  smaller  sea-going  vessels  run  from  Cologne 
to  England,  and  likewise  to  Hamburg,  Bremen  and  the  Baltic  ports. 
Waterways  primarily  adapted  for  rafting  timber  and  suitable  only 
in  a  small  degree  for  boat  traffic  are  not  considered  in  this  article. 

Most  inland  waterways  which  are  used  entirely  or  mainly 
'by  river  boats  are  divided  into  two  classes:  natural  and  artificial. 

'This  study  is  an  .adaptation  and  translation  of  the  fifth  rhaptPr  of  "Vorknhrs- 
pntwickeluns  in  Deutschland.  lSOO-1000."  and  is  herp  reproduced  by  permission  of 
the  author,  and  the  publisher,  B.  G.  Teiibner.  l.eipzis.  1006. 

(-M6) 


Significance   of   German   Inland    Watcncays  247 

The  natural  include  inland  lakes  like  Lake  of  Constance  and  the 
great  North  American  lakes,  also  rivers  even  when  "regulated"  by 
shortening  the  windings,  dredging  the  channels  to  uniform  depths, 
narrowing  the  banks,  and  by  other  constructions  at  large  expense 
for  the  benefit  of  navigation  or  the  adjacent  lands.  As  artificial 
are  considered  those  waterways  that  carry  traffic  over  water- 
sheds to  connect  different  natural  routes,  such  as  the  Ludwigs- 
Donau-Main-Canal,  and  the  Erie  Canal  connecting  the  Hudson 
River  and  the  Great  Lakes;  and  paralleling  canals  dug  along  the 
course  of  a  river  not  suitable  for  traffic  to  obtain  a  navigable  water- 
way, as  for  example,  many  of  the  French  canals  and  parts  of  the 
German  Dortmund-Ems  Canal.  It  may  be  questioned  whether 
canalized  rivers,  that  are  made  navigable  through  dams,  are  to 
be  classified  as  natural  or  artificial.  To  this  division  belongs  the 
Main  between  Offenbach  and  Mainz. 

Inland  IVaterzva-ys  at  the  Advent  of  the  Railroads 

The  general  opinion  between  1840  and  1870  was  strongly 
against  the  ability  of  inland  waterways  to  carry  traffic  in  compe- 
tition with  the  railroads.  Let  us  consider  the  conditions  at  the 
time  of  the  introduction  of  the  railroad.  France,  the  Netherlands, 
Sweden  and  upper  Italy  were  already  served  by  a  passable  net-work 
of  navigable  channels ;  England  and  the  United  States  had  recently 
sought  to  construct  what  these  other  countries  had  before  pro- 
vided. It  soon  became  the  common  belief,  especially  in  England 
and  America,  that  canals  of  the  old  type  were  less  capable  of  carry- 
ing the  traffic  than  the  railroads.  This  unfavorable  opinion  grad- 
ually changed  after  1875  in  favor  of  the  inland  waterways.  Such 
was  the  case,  especially  in  Germany,  where  a  notable  development 
in  traffic  capacity  of  the  inland  waterways  occurred  in  the  period 
1 875- 1 905.  However,  by  no  means,  w^ere  all  interests  glad  to  see 
the  revival  of  inland  water  transportation  facilities.  The  warmest 
advocates  of  the  new  development  were  those  w^ho  were  dissatisfied 
with  the  results  of  the  control  of  the  railroads  by  the  state.  Leg- 
islative control  of  tariffs,  which  had  been  hoped  for  at  the  time  the 
railroads  were  taken  over,  has  not  been  realized.  The  natural 
monopoly  present  in  the  railroad  system  has  been  managed  by  the 


248  ■  The  Annals  of  the  Aniericaii  Academy 

administration  to  the  best  of  its  knowledge  and  understanding,  but 
in  spite  of  this  it  cannot  be  denied  that  in  Prussia  large  profits 
have  been  sought,  while  in  Germany  as  a  whole,  since  1879,  so  far 
as  the  fiscal  point  of  view  has  not  ruled,  the  management  has  been 
used  to  favor  the  export  of  certain  wares  and  to  hinder  that  of 
others  in  furthering  the  protective  tariff  policy. 

Many  of  those  who  were  not  satisfied  with  the  ofiicial  admin- 
istration of  the  railroad  monopoly,  including  those  opposed  to  the 
commercial  policy  followed  since  1879,  and  also  many  of  its  ad- 
herents, were  glad  to  find  in  inland  navigation  a  means  of  moving 
freight  which  was  independent  of  the  railroad  administration. 
Those  who  have  given  a  non-partisan  attention  to  the  development 
and  traffic-carrying  ability  of  the  waterways  have  been  forced, 
especially  in  view  of  the  accomplishments  between  1875  and  1905, 
to  admit  the  increased  importance  of  this  means  of  transportation. 

Causes  of  Grozvtli  of  JFatcr  Transportation 

On  what  causes  does  this  advance  depend?  One  important 
reason  for  the  development  of  inland  water  transportation  in  the 
second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  is  the  freedom  from  tolls 
of  navigation  on  natural  waterways.  River  transportation  has 
increased  in  proportion  with  the  success  of  the  continual  movement 
carried  on  between  1815-1870  for  the  elimination  of  the  mediseval 
tolls  on  the  rivers.  Traffic  was  hindered  and  made  more  expen- 
sive through  centuries  by  these  tolls  in  return  for  which  no  impor- 
tant improvements  in  the  navigability  of  the  rivers  were  made 
up  to  1800.  These  hindrances  to  the  natural  development  of  traffic 
on  the  more  important  German  rivers  were  broken  down  by  inter- 
state agreements.  The  prejudices  of  the  German  people  against 
navigation  tolls  were  so  great  that  they  finally  found  expression 
in  a  rather  radical  form  in  the  imperial  constitution.  It  is  true 
the  statement  is  not  so  clear  in  form  as  might  have  been  wished, 
so  that  to-day  doubts  may  be  expressed  as  to  the  meaning  of  the 
various  clauses. 

Article  54,  section  four,  of  the  German  Im[)crial  Constitution 
reads:  "Taxes  may  be  levied  on  boats  on  natural  waterways  only 
for  the  use  of  special  facilities  intended  for  aiding  traffic.     These 


Significance  of  German  Inland   IVatcncays  249 

tolls,  as  also  those  for  the  passage  of  such  artificial  waterways 
as  are  the  property  of  the  state,  may  not  exceed  the  amount 
necessary  to  meet  the  costs  of  administration,  and  maintenance 
of  the  facilities  where  they  are  levied.  These  conditions  also  apply 
to  all  floating-  timber  traffic  so  far  as  such  traffic  is  upon  the  navi- 
gable waterways." 

The  meaning  of  these  clauses  is  by  no  means  beyond  dispute. 
It  is  clear  that  the  payment  of  the  interest  on  the  outlay  for  natural 
and  artificial  waterways  was  not  expressly  designated.  Unfortu- 
nately, however,  it  is  not  stated  how  the  tolls  for  meeting  the  costs 
of  the  improvements  are  to  be  determined,  nor  what  is  to  be  con- 
sidered a  natural  and  an  artificial  waterway.  It  remains  uncertain 
whether  canalized  rivers  belong  to  artificial  waterways  as  concerns 
the  levying  of  tolls.  It  is  fairly  clear  that  rivers  not  canalized  by 
the  use  of  dams  but  "regulated,"  and  upon  which  large  sums  have 
been  spent  for  the  improvement  of  navigation  are  to  be  considered 
as  natural  waterways  by  these  clauses  of  the  Imperial  Constitution. 

The  second  cause  of  the  advance  of  inland  water  transportation 
in  Germany  is  a  technical  one.  Inland  navigation  has  received  i 
a  great  advantage  in  competition  wdth  the  railroads  through  im- 
provements in  the  control  of  streams,  in  the  building  of  canals, 
in  boat  building,  and  in  the  methods  of  handling  traffic.  First 
of  all,  great  advances  have  been  made  in  rendering  rivers  navi- 
gable. In  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  experience  proved 
the  practicability  of  maintaining  a  minimum  depth  of  water  in 
rivers  otherwise  not  navigable  by  means  of  the  movable  tlam.-  For 
the  "regulation"  of  rivers,  in  which  great  technical  advance  is  being 
made,  and  for  the  canalization  of  rivers  increasing  appropriations 
are  being  made  from  public  funds. 

One  conclusion  in  regard  to  the  building  of  artificial  waterways 
has  become  apparent  since  1870,  viz.,  a  canal  on  which  only  small 
boats  drawn  by  horses  can  be  moved  is  capable  of  competition  with 
the  railroads  only  under  very  exceptional  conditions.  The  fixed 
costs  of  such   a  canal   can,   under  present   conditions,   seldom  be 

^These  are  tlams  roKulatins  1!io  retention  and  flow  of  water  aecordins:  to  the 
local  needs.  Sin;;le  sections  may  be  taken  out  of  tlie  dam  or  replaced.  The  dam 
can  be  made  complete  li.v  the  insertion  of  all  sections  or  entirel.y  removed  by  taking 
out  the  various  sections.  Sucli  dams  work  perfectly  on  the  canalized  section  of 
the  Main  between  Frankfort  and  Mainz, 


250  The  ^Iniials  of  the  ^hncrican  ^icadcmy 

covered  by  the  income  from  the  usual  canal  tolls  or  by  increased 
ability  of  the  surrounding  district  to  pay  higher  rates.  On  the 
other  hand  canals  upon  which  heavy  shipping  is  possible  in  boats 
of  450  to  600  tons  capacity,  and  upon  which  mechanical  power 
can  be  introduced  for  the  movement  of  boats,  do  not  fall  under 
this  unfavorable  criticism,  even  in  this  age  of  railroads.  It  is  of 
great  importance  that  heavy  traffic  should  be  possible  and  that 
rapid  forwarding  should  not  be  interfered  with  through  many  small 
locks.  • 

Where  difificulties  of  elevation  are  to  be  overcome,  the  new 
development  in  canal  technique  aims  to  overcome  the  differences 
as  much  as  possible  by  a  single  lifting  instead  of  through  several 
small  locks — the  so-called  flights  of  locks.  The  technical  advances 
of  the  present  day  make  it  possible  to  overcome  at  one  time  by 
means  of  chamber  locks  differences  in  height  of  ten  meters. 

Another  means  in  use  at  the  present  time  to  overcome  the 
great  difficulties  of  lockage  is  the  use  of  a  contrivance  to  raise 
ships  floating  in  a  chamber  filled  with  water.  This  elevator  method 
is  used  in  the  Dortmund  Ems  Canal  in  Henrichenburg,  but  the 
newer  plan  to  raise  ships  on  an  inclined  plane  has  proved  successful 
as  yet  only  for  small  boats.  Its  adaptability  for  use  in  heavy  traffic 
is  still  a  matter  of  dispute.^ 

An  important  improvement  in  river  and  canal  transportation  in 
the  nineteenth  century  has  come  through  increase  in  the  size  of 
the  boats.  The  largest  boat  on  the  Rhine  at  the  present  time  has 
a  tonnage  capacity  above  2,600.  In  1902  began  the  building  of 
iron  sailing  and  tow  boats  for  the  Rhine  with  a  capacity  of  more 
than  650  tons.  The  average  capacity  of  the  sail  and  tow  boats 
rose  from  182  tons  in  1884  to  340  tons  in  1902.*  A  Rhine  boat  of 
1,500  tons  capacity  can  carry  as  much  as  150  railroad  cars  of 
ten  tons  burden.  It  replaces  several  freight  trains,  and  while  in 
the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  Ludwigs-Donan-Main 
Canal  was  built  for  ships  with  a  capacity  of  127  tons,  the  present 
projects  for  canal  building  provide  a  waterway  to  accommodate 
boats  of  600  tons  burden. 

•At  Elbins  on  the  Overland  Canal,  boats  of  fifty  tons  capacity  are  carried 
on  cars,  overcotnlns  a  fall  of  tweuty-five  meters.  This  is  not  possible  for  boats 
of  600  tons. 

*See  Volume  102  of  the  publications  of  the  Verein  fiir  Sozialpolitik,  pp.  89-00. 


Significance  of  German   Inland   U'atencays  2^1 

Great  improvements  have  also  been  made  in  the  nineteenth 
century  in  the  traction  of  boats  on  inland  waterways.  Besides  the 
improvements  offered  by  the  use  of  chains  for  ascending  certain 
rivers,  the  most  important  advance  has  been  in  the  adaptation  of 
steam  powcr.^  At  the  present  time  attempts  are  being  made  to 
adapt  electricity  to  the  propelling  of  boats  on  inland  waterways, 
arid  the  development  of  methods  of  mechanical  towage  on  canals 
by  electrical  locomotives,  etc.,  is  being  actively  pushed. 

Comparison  of  Present  Rail  and  Water  Traffic 

At  the  present  time  inland  water  transportation,  even  in  competi- 
tion with  the  railroads,  shows  a  much  healthier  development  than 
was  shown  in  1800  in  the  competition  with  ordinary  roads.  This 
is  true  with  a  single  qualification.  The  increase  of  inland  navi- 
gation occurs  primarily  where  heavy  traffic  with  the  adaptation  of 
mechanical  methods  of  towing  or  propulsion  is  possible. 

The  following  remarkable  figures  showing  the  advance  of 
German  inland  water  navigation  are  taken  from  the  work  of  Geh. 
Rat  Sympher.  These  statistics  give  a  comparison  of  the  develop- 
ment of  trafffc  on  the  railroads  and  inland  waterways  of  Germany 
since  1875.  The  incompleteness  of  official  statistics  of  inland  water 
traffic  necessitates  estimates  for  the  ton  kilometer  traffic  passing 
on  inland  waterways,  but  these  estimates  have  been  made  with 
care.®  Of  course  errors  are  not  impossible  wherever  estimates  are 
relied  upon.  The  statistics  in  regard  to  railroads,  however,  are 
more  reliable.  It  is  further  to  be  noted  that  there  are  included 
10,000  kilometers  of  navigable  inland  waterways  in  1875  as  well  as 
in  1905 ;  and  in  1905  the  unimportant  navigable  sections  of  the 
waterwavs  are  not  included.  In  this  way  the  showing  for  the 
traffic  on  the  waterways  in  1905  is  more  favorable  than  would  have 
been  the  case  had  those  portions  carrying  very  little  traffic  been 
included  in  the  average.  The  following  figures  are  offered  with 
these  explanations : 

'^The  use  of  steamboats  on  canals  is  a  much  more  difficult  problem  than  upon 
rivers.  Screw  propellers  and  sidewheelers  damage  the  canal  banks,  while  no  such 
disadvantages  attend  their  use  on   rivers. 

"See  as  to  the  method  used  for  the  estimates,  Zeitschrift  fiir  Bauwesen,  1891, 
p.  45. 


252  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

German   Navigable    JVatern'ays,   not   including   River   Mouths   Navigable   by 

Sea-Going  Ships. 

1S75.  IQ05. 

Length 10,000  km.  '           10,000  km. 

Arrived,  tons  1 1,000,000  56,400,000 

Departed,   tons    9,800,000  47,000,000 

Net  ton   kilometers'    2,900.000,000  15,000,000,000 

Kilometric  traffic*  290,000  1,500.000 

Average   distance   transported....                 280km.  290km. 

German    Railroads 

JS75  1905 

Length    26.500  km.  54400  km. 

Ton  kilometers   10,900,000,000  44,600,000,000 

Kilometric  traffic   410,000  820,000 

Average   distance   transported  125  km.  151  km. 

Per  cent  of  total  traffic : 

Inland   waterways    21%  25% 

Railroads    79%  75% 


100%  100% 

If  it  be  correct  to  assume  that  the  length  of  the  navigable 
waterways  remains  the  same  in  1905  as  it  was  in  1875 — ten  thou- 
sand kilometers — the  part  of  waterway  trafific  in  the  total  traffic 
(24  as  compared  with  21  per  cent)  has  increased  more  than  the 
per  cent  of  the  rail  tonnage,  although  the  railways  rose  from  26,500 
to  54,400  kilometers  in  length.^ 

'There  .ire  three  ways  in  which  the  statistics  of  traffic  may  be  presented  :  The 
first  possibility  is  to  ask  how  many  tons  have  passed  on  a  certain  route.  The 
second,  to  consider  the  weight  and  distance  carried,  thus  arriving  at  a  ton  kilo- 
meter basis,  viz..  determining  how  often  one  ton  has  been  moved  one  kilometer  on 
a  route.  The  third  possibility  is  to  determine  the  kilometric  traffic.  The  whole 
number  of  kilometric  tons  is  divided  by  the  length  of  the  route,  and  it  is  found 
what  part  of  the  entire  traffic  carried  falls  upon  the  average  kilometer.  This  is 
the  best  method  of  comfirison  where  we  are  interested  in  what  the  waterway 
and  railroads  actually  accomplish  for  traffic.  The  above  figures  from  Sympher 
are  to  be  found  in  the  Zeitschrift   fiir  P.innenschiffahrt.   1007,  p.  496,  ct  scq. 

Hn  reckoning  average  distance  transported  it  is  sought  to  answer  the  follow- 
ing question  :  How  many  kilometers  on  the  average  does  a  ton  of  freight,  once 
delivered  to  the  waterway  or  railroad,  travel  before  it  reaches  its  destination? 

"If  the  length  of  German  waterways  in  1000  be  taken  as  the  same  as  In  187.5, 
their  character  was  markedly  imi)rove(l.  Major  Knrs,  however,  reckons  the  length 
of  the  navigable  canals  and  river.s  in  Germany  in  1804  as  greater  than  that 
given  by  Sympher,  namelv  lLMi2;J.02  kilometers.  Including  the  navigable  inland  seas 
and  harbors,  etc.,  Ma.ior  Knrs  counts  14,0;?0..'?7  kilometers  in  Germany.  See  page 
10  of  the  Tabulated  Report  Concerning  the  Navigable  Waterways  and  the  Water- 
ways for  Rafting  Timber  in  the  German  Empire.    (Major  Kurs,  Berlin,  1894.) 


Sii^uificaiicc  of  German   Inland   Jl'atcnvays  253 

Kilometric  traffic  was,  if  Synipher's  estimates  are  to  be  trusted, 
much  smaller  by  water  in  1875  than  upon  the  railroads.  In  1905 
the  average  traffic  on  railroads  had  risen  greatly,  but  that  upon  the 
waterways  had  increased  even  more  so  that  it  (1,500,000  ton  kilo- 
meters) exceeded  the  kilometric  traffic  of  the  railroads  (820,000  ton 
kilometers).  The  kilometric  traffic  of  the  German  waterways  at 
the  present  time  is  greater  than  that  upon  the  French  waterways. ^° 

These   figures   are   indeed   remarkable.     However,   a   warning 
must  be  given  that  careless  conclusions  must  not  be  drawn  from 
these  estimates.     In  the  first  place,  in  the  statistics  presented,  only    / 
a  part  of  the  traffic  carried  by  the  railroad  is  compared  with  prac-  ' 
tically  the  total  of  that   by   waterways.     Passenger   traffic,   which  j 
plays  a  large  part  in  the  case  of  the  railroads,  plays  a  very  unim- 
portant one  on  the  water  routes  ;  but  even  in  the  case  of  freight 
traffic  we  must  be  careful  not  to  overestimate  the  importance  of 
these   figures   however   great   that   may   be.     Though   the   average 
carriage  in  Germany  per  kilometer  on  the  waterways  in   1900  was 
greater  than  on  the  railroads,  nevertheless  we  must  not  conclude 
that  more  freight  was  actually  forwarded  on  these  routes.     That  is 
not  the  case.     The  total   amount  of   freight   forwarded  is   in   fact 
very  much  less  on  waterways  than  on  the  railroads. 

If  a  fourth  of  the  total  traffic  in  ton  kilometers  is  carried  on 
the  inland  waterways  and  three-fourths  on  the  railroad's,  this 
does  not  mean  that  one-fourth  of  the  freight  went  on  the  water- 
ways instead  of  on  the  railroads.  About  16.2  per  cent  of  all  freight 
arrivals  used  waterways;  but  the  once-loaded  freight  used  the 
waterways  on  an  average  of  290  kilometers,  and,  in  the  case  of 
the  railroad,  only  151  kilometers:  therefore,  in  waterway  traffic  the 
figures  for  ton  kilometers  become  especiallv  large. 

The  distance  from  the  shi])ping  point  to  the  destination  does  I 
not  always  indicate  the  actual  service  rendered  by  water.  Round- 
about routes  are  necessitated  by  the  course  of  the  streams.  Besides 
that,  the  cheapnesss  of  the  waterway  oftentimes  justifies  a  great 
diversion  from  the  direct  route;  thus  greatly  increasing  the  kilo-' 
meter  tons  but  not  equaling  the  higher  charges  levied  by  the  rail- 
roads. A  remarkable  example  of  this  may  be  cited.  In  1891 
a  large  quantity  of  soda   w^as  to   be   sent   from   the   Wiirtemberg 

'"The  kilometric   traffic  on   the   French   inland   waterways   is  given   by   Sympher 
for  1905   as  411,000,   as  compared   to   182,000  in   1S75. 


254  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

town  of  Heilbron  to  Tetschen  in  Bohemia.  The  railroad  route 
was  evidently  the  shortest  but  the  soda  was  not  sent  thus,  but 
was  sent  down  the  Neckar,  then  laden  into  a  Rhine  boat,  again 
transshipped  at  Rotterdam  and  brought  to  Hamburg,  w^iere,  after 
another  reloading,  it  was  taken  up  the  Elbe  to  Tetschen.  In  spite 
of  all  this  the  freight  charges  were  cheaper  than  upon  the  railroad. 
Further,  the  development  of  inland  water  traffic  in  Germany  in 
the  period  1875- 1905  must  not  be  believed  to  be  the  same  on  all 
routes.  The  greater  proportion  of  the  total  inland  water  traffic 
I  in  1905  took  place  upon  the  Rhine  and  Elbe  wdiich  carried  66.9 
per  cent  of  the  entire  amount.  Great  advances  have  been  made 
upon  the  Oder  and  W'eser,  and  also  to  a  lesser  degree  on  the 
Donau.  Besides  these  instances  the  only  advances  made  were 
upon  those  few  canals  and  canalized  routes  which  by  1905  had 
been  made  accessible  for  larger  boats.  On  those  waterways  where 
no  adaptation  to  present-day  needs  has  been  made  a  falling  off  in 
traffic  is  shown,  even  in  this  late  period. 

In  comparison  to  railroad  lines  traversing  the  same  territory, 
river  navigation  is  able  to  compete  best  where  transportation  of 
I  heavy  articles  of  low  value  not  requiring  great  speed  is  demanded. 
Besides  this  it  happens  also  that  non-perishable  articles  of  high 
lvalue  seek  the  waterways  whenever  the  railroads  for  any  reason 
demand  high  freight  rates.  This  happens  not  only  in  the  case 
of  grain  but  for  a  large  number  of  other  articles,  not  included 
in  the  cheap  special  tariffs  Nos.  2  and  3. 

The  Question  of  Tolls  on  the  JVaterivays 

The  requirements  in  the  Imperial  Constitution  on  the  levying 
of  tolls  on  the  waterways  have  already  been  presented.  It  remains 
to  review  the  actual  administration  of  these  provisions  and  to  de- 
scribe the  movement  in  favor  of  a  change  therein.  At  the  present 
time,  in  practice,  navigation  on  the  open  streams,  with  a  few  ex- 
ceptions, is  free,  while  the  use  of  harbors  and  unloading  facilities 
is  often  conditioned  upon  the  payment  of  tolls.  On  the  more 
important  streams  the  freedom  from  taxes  for  the  bare  use  of  the 
waterwavs  is  guaranteed  not  only  by  the  Imperial  Constitution 
but  by  interstate  agreements.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Prussian 
government  levies  important  tolls  on  the  canalized  rivers  w^hcn 
opportunity  offers,  as,  for  example,  on  the  canals  of  the  lower  Main 


Significance  of  German   Inland   jratenvays  255 

and  on  the  Fulda  between  Kassel  and  Miinden,  on  the  upper  Oder, 
etc.  Navigation  taxes  are  regularly  levied  in  Germany  on  the 
canals  even  for  bare  passage.  It  often  happens  that  navigable  water- 
ways not  suitable  for  heavy  traffic,  such  as  the  Ludwigs-Donau- 
Main  Canal,  at  the  present  time,  do  not  pay  the  cost  of  maintenance,  j 
in  spite  of  high  tolls,  since  the  traffic  is  too  small.  This  is  not 
always  the  case,  however,  even  on  the  smaller  canals.  The  water- 
ways near  llerlin,  although  not  satisfying  in  all  particulars  the 
demands  of  present-day  heavy  traffic,  are  in  much  more  favorable 
condition  due  to  the  lively  business  carried  on  upon  them. 

The  Prussian  Minister  of  Finance  reported  to  the  Landtag 
as  follows :  "The  Finow  Canal  brings  in  an  income  of  ten  million 
marks,  though  it  certainly  has  cost  us  less  than  two  million  marks. 
The  other  waterways  near  Berlin  also  bring  us  in  a  good  surplus."'^ 

The  expenses  for  inland  waterways  in  Prussia  for  the  period 
1881-1897  are  given  as  398,781,000  marks.  Of  this  amount  one- 
third  was  for  current  expenses,  maintenance,  administration 
and  collection  of  tolls,  and  two-thirds  for  repairs,  betterments 
and  extensions,  (^f  the  total  expenditures  between  1891  and  1897, 
one  hundred  and  forty-nine  million  marks  were  upon  rivers,  and 
57,000.000  on  the  canals.^-  It  is  disputed  whether  the  ex- ! 
penditures  on  waterways  should  be  recovered  by  taxes  upon  i 
the  traffic  passing  over  them,  as  in  the  case  of  railroads.  It 
is  urged,  on  the  one  side,  that  the  costs  must  be  covered  by  tolls 
on  shipping,  as  otherwise  one  district  gets  a  special  advantage 
from  appropriations  of  state  funds.  It  is  argued  also  that  the 
improvement  of  the  waterways  can  be  carried  on  only  when  an 
income  from  shipping  is  secured.  Taxes,  in  retiu-n  for  which 
something  is  given,  are  not  to  be  compared  to  the  old  river  tolls 
for  which  little  or  nothing  was  accomplished  for  traffic.  Finally, 
there  are  strong  advocates  for  the  levying  of  tolls  on  inland  water 
transportation  (by  amendments  to  the  constitution,  and  the  inter- 
state agreements),  in  order  that  the  Prussian  railroads  may  not 
suffer  an  unwelcome  competition  which  partly  nullifies  the  tariff 
policy  favored  by  those  administering  them.     For  the  other   side 

"See  Schwabe,  p.  75.  Up  to  the  present  time  the  Finow  Canal  is  available 
only  for  boats  of  1.50  to  170  tons  burden,  Schwabe,  p.  130;  also  Peters,  '"ITie 
Financial  Development  of  the  Prussian  Waterways."  (Archiv  fiir  Bisenbahnwesen, 
1902,  p.  749.) 

"See  Schwabe,  p.  125. 


256  The  AiuiaU  of  the  American  Academy 

it  is  argued  that  waterways,  like  the  highways  on  land,  should 
be  kept  tax  free,  so  that  it  may  be  possible  to  have  free  traffic  by 
various  competing  lines.  The  expenses  for  improvements  may  well 
be  covered  through  increased  ability  to  bear  taxation  in  the  dis- 
tricts of  land  improved  by  theni.  Furthermore,  the  railroad  is  not 
an  end  in  itself.  When  the  railroads  were  taken  over  by  the 
state  it  was  not  the  intent  to  seek  after  the  highest  profits  possible 
and  to  crush  every  competition  that  should  lessen  such  profits. 
Waterways  stimulate  new  branches  of  traffic,  and  the  railroad  traffic 
itself  increases  where  there  is  a  waterway  capable  of  supplying 
the  needs  of  commerce.  Finally,  it  is  not  technically  possible 
to  divide  the  expenses  of  river  improvements  between  the  shipping 
interests  and  those  of  the  neighboring  disti^icts  of  land. 

My  personal  belief  is  that  to  introduce  tolls  upon  the  Rhine 
and  Elbe  navigation  would  be  a  great  step  backward  for  Germany. 
It  is  more  than  apparent  that  taxes  upon  river  traffic  in  the  end 
result  in  a  raising  of  freight  rates.  To  introduce  consciously  such 
■  a  thing  in  the  presence  of  the  competition  ruling  in  the  world 
to-day,  would  be  a  decided  step  backward  in  our  policy.  Its  harm 
would  not  be  confined  to  those  producing  and  consuming  districts 
near  the  waterways. 

Inland  navigation  facilities  increase  the  prosperity  of  our  sea 
trade.  Harbors  which  lack  inland  waterways  traffic  command  a 
too  narrow  Hinterland  for  a  large  foreign  trade,  no  matter  how 
well  developed  may  be  their  railway  net.  The  French  to-day  point 
I  to  the  prosperity  of  Antwerp,  Rotterdam  and  Hamburg,  and  argue 
I  that  they  who  wish  a  great  sea  trade  must  supplement  their  other 
facilities  w'ith  a  suitable  inland  waterways  system.  It  is  not  in- 
tended to  argue  that  tolls  on  canals  or  to  cover  the  expenditures 
for  large  improvements  on  canalized  rivers  are  objectionable  m 
every  case.  Improvements  that  bring  important  traffic  economies 
may  be  paid  for  by  a  reasonable  tax,  and  within  the  bounds  provided 
by  the  Imperial  Constitution.  For  building  canals,  for  the  cost 
of  which  no  tolls  are  to  be  levied,  funds  cannot  be  gotten  from  the 
governments  and  legislatures  without  great  difficulty.  In  less  de- 
gree the  same  is  true  of  the  expensive  canalization  of  river  courses. 

To  sum  up,  even  in  countries  owning  the  railroads,  so  long 
as  it  is  impossible  through  legislative  regulation  of  the  tariff  to 
control  the  actual  management  of  the  railroad  monopoly,  the  pes- 


Significance  of  German  Inland  Waterzvays  257 


sibility  is  at  hand  that  the  railroad  pohcy  may  overlook  and  harm 
important  national  interests.  The  significance  of  inland  waterways, 
over  which  no  tariff  policy  can  acquire  easy  control,  lies  at  present 
chiefly  in  the  fact  that  they  make  possible  free  competition  against 
the  railroad  monopoly.  They  can  sooner  force  the  railroads, 
through  competition,  to  give  better  rates  than  can  be  the  case 
through  other  methods  of  procedure.  Nationalized  railroads  may 
be  managed  to  favor  protective  tariff  policies.  Freedom  of  traffic 
upon  waterways  prevents  such  a  development. 
The  advantages  of  inland  waterways  are : 

1.  They  can  carry  bulk  freight  of  non-perishable  variety  long 
distances  by  water  cheaper  than  these  commodities  can  be  for- 
warded by  railroad. 

2.  Traffic  facilities  are  here  offered  which  are  independent 
of  any  economic  policy  favored  by  the  management  of  the  railroads. 
All  freight  may  be  carried  with  charges  dependent  solely  upon 
the  actual  cost  of  the  service. 

This  estimation  of  the  importance  of  inland  waterways  at  the 
present  time  does  not  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  all  projects  for 
canals  which  are  presented,  whether  technically  or  financially  sound 
or  not,  should  be  favored ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  this  investigation 
proves  that  a  plan  for  improving  inland  waterways,  technically 
and  financially  sound,  should  not  be  opposed  merely  because  of  the 
fear  of  the  competition  such  facilities  would  bring  to  the  traffic 
on  other  transportation  means.  Never  in  history  have  the  agri- 
culture and  industry  of  a  people  declined  because  good  methods 
of  transportation  were  furnished  through  the  country,  but  the 
downfall  of  many  peoples,  not  only  in  trade  and  industry,  but  also 
in  agriculture,  has  come  when  they  neglected  to  maintain  the  great 
lines  of  communication  used  by  international  commerce. 

The  Prussian   Law   of  April   i,   ipoj,  for   the   Maintenance   and 
Extension  of  Waterzvays 

After  the  first  plan  of  the  Prussian  government  for  joining 
the  Rhine  and  the  Elbe  by  an  inland  canal  had  been  frustrated 
by  the  Prussian  Landtag,  a  new  proposition  was  finally  passed 
as  a  conipromise  on  the  first  of  April,  1905.  By  this  law  334,575,- 
000  marks  are  granted  to  build  a  canal  from  the  Rhine  to  Hanover 
and  Linden.     Various  enlargements  are  provided  including  a  deep 


258  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

waterway  from  Berlin  to  Stettin  and  other  improvements,  chiefly 
connected  with  the  Oder,  There  is  a  provision  that  the  users 
of  the  canal  shall  pay  tolls  and  that  the  provinces  and  other  public 
organizations  through  which  the  canals  pass,  such  as  Bremen,  shall 
contribute  to  the  interest  and  sinking  fund  on  the  capital  raised  for 
the  projects  in  so  far  as  these  charges  may  not  be  met  through  the 
tolls  on  shipping. 

A  rather  broad  right  of  expropriation  is  reserved  to  the  state. 
A  waterways  council  is  to  be  created  from  representatives  of  the 
government,  of  other  organizations  involved,  and  of  the  provinces 
guaranteeing  for  interest.  Besides  the  decision  to  substitute  for 
the  Rhine  and  Elbe  Canal  a  system  reaching  from  the  Rhine  to  the 
Weser  and  Hannover,  the  law  introduced  two  other  important  modi- 
fications. 

Paragraph  eighteen  reads :  "Only  the  towage  provided  by  the 
government  can  be  used  on  the  canals  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Weser 
and  the  branch  to  Hannover,  and  on  the  branch  canals  of  those 
waterways.  The  establishment  of  mechanical  towage  on  these 
routes  is  forbidden  to  private  individuals.  The  movement  of  ships 
with  their  own  propelling  force  over  these  routes  is  to  be  permitted 
only  under  a  special  license.  Further  provisions  concerning  the 
towing  monopoly  and  the  furnishing  of  the  necessary  capital  are 
to  be  provided  by  a  special  law." 

Paragraph  nineteen  reads:  "Shipping  tolls  are  to  be  levied  on 
the  rivers  'regulated'  in  the  interests  of  navigation.  These  tolls 
are  to  be  so  adjusted  that  their  }ield  shall  make  possible  a  reason- 
able interest  payment  and  sinking  fund  on  the  capital  which  the 
state  shall  raise  for  the  bettering  or  deepening  of  each  of  those 
rivers,   in   the   interest  of  navigation,  above  their  natural   depths." 

It  remains  to  be  seen  whether,  at  the  completion  of  this  canal, 
its  extension  to  the  Elbe  will  be  provided  for;  whether  the  inter- 
state treaties  and  provisions  of  the  constitution  which  have  for- 
bidden thus  far  the  raising  of  tolls  on  navigation  on  free  streams 
will  be  changed ;  whether,  finally,  tlic  state  towing  monopoly  on 
the  Rhine  and  Hanover  Canal  will  actually  be  established.  If  the 
intentions  of  the  legislators  of  1905  are  realized  in  these  particulars. 
it  is  evident  that  a  development  of  freight  traffic  which  will  counter- 
act the  Prussian  railroad  tarifif  policy  will  be  impossible  on  the 
inland  waterways.  If  the  railroad  tariff  policy  remains  protective 
and  friendly  to  the  syndicates,  it  will,  under  the  above  conditions, 


Significance  of  German   InUvtd   IVatenvays  259 

find  no  true  correction  through  the  operation  of  the  canals.  Like- 
wise, the  inland  waterway  system  will  gradually  cease  to  be  a 
competitor  against  the  railroad  monopoly  through  the  fact  that  the 
same  interests  which  control  the  latter  in  favor  of  the  protective 
tariff  will  dominate  the  former  also  for  the  same  end. 

Apropos  of  this  estimate  of  the  canal  law  the  table  on  page  260 
is  significant. 

It  is  further  to  be  noticed  that  carrying  through  this  plan 
that  each  river  should  bear  the  cost  of  the  improvements  made  upon 
it  would  be  especially  burdensome  to  the  Mosel,  Weser,  Weichsel, 
Memel  and  Warthe  rivers.  Upon  these  the  traffic  would,  be- 
yond doubt,  fall  off  and  their  yield  in  tolls  would  be  disappointing. 
If  an  eastern  and  western  canal  net  were  joined,  all  being 
subject  to  tolls  under  the  canal  law,  the  eastern  division,  including 
the  streams  at  the  present  time  free,  would  be  seriously  handi- 
capped. The  plan  to  make  the  streams  bear  the  burden  of  all 
expenditures  formerly  made  upon  them  is  against  all  justice. 
The  government  should,  as  it  has  done  in  the  past,  assign  a  part 
of  these  expenses  a  fonds  perdu  as  their  benefits  accrue  largely  to 
interests  other  than  those  of  navigation.  Future  expenditures  also, 
which  work  toward  the  cheapening  of  transportation,  need  not 
be  met  by  special  levies,  but  can  be  paid  through  the  general  in- 
creased ability  to  bear  taxation. 

At  the  present  time  the  Prussian  government  is  earnestly 
working  to  get  the  support  of  interested  factions  for  a  project 
establishing  tolls  on  river  navigation.  What  the  result  will  be 
cannot  yet  be  stated.  Formerly  the  argument  of  the  interests 
of  the  state  railroads  and  that  concerning  protection  against  the 
import  of  cheap  grains  were  prominent  in  this  connection,  but 
recently  the  argument  has  been  emphasized  that  expenditures  for 
the  bettering  of  waterways  should  be  paid  by  the  waterways  them- 
selves, and  an  extensive  program  has  been  mapped  out  under  this 
plan. 

In  this  way  the  navigation  interests  have  been  divided  into 
two  camps:  Those  which  are  burdened  with  tolls  at  the  present 
time  are  played  oft'  against  those  interests  using  the  tax-free  streams. 
To  the  first  class  the  hope  is  held  out  that  in  the  future  the  tolls 
upon  them  will  be  lessened  if  the  heretofore  free  streams  are  com- 
pelled to  contribute  to  the  canal  funds.     All  this  is  in  the  future. 


26o 


The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 


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Significance  of  German  Inland  Waterways  261 

One  great  scruple  is  that  the  height  of  the  navigation  tolls  are 
to  be  set  by  the  administration  and  not  through  laws ;  at  all  events, 
immoderate  tolls  will  yield  nothing,  as  the  inland  transportation 
interests  will  be  ruined.  It  is  expected  that  the  administration 
would  be  inclined  to  grant  lighter  tolls  than  the  legislature  and  that 
they  would  be  more  independent  of  selfish  interests.  It  is  still  to 
be  proved  whether  these  expectations  are  justified. 

REFERENCES. 

Schwabe.     Die   Entwickelung  der  deutschen   Binnenschiffahrt  bis  zuin   Ende 

des  19.  Jahrhunderts.     Berlin,  1899. 
Weber  von.  Ebenhoch.     Ban,   Betrieb  und  Verwaltung  der  naturlichen  und 

kiinstlichen  Wafferstrassen.     Wien,  1895. 
Schanz,   G.     Der   Donau-Main-Kanal  und  seine   Schicksale.     Bamberg,    1894. 
Schanz,  G.     Die  Mainschififahrt  im  19.     Jahrhundert  und  ihre  kunftige  Ent- 
wickelung.    Bamberg,  1894. 
Grangez,    Ernest.     Precis    historique    et    statistique    des    voies    navigables    de 

la  France,  etc.     Paris,  1855. 
Cohn,    Gustav.     Zur    Geschichte    und    Politik    des    Verkehrswesens.     Stutt- 
gart, 1900. 
Lotz,  W.     Die  Aufgabcn  der  Binnenwasserstrassen   im  Zeitalter  der  Eiscn- 

bahnen.     (Beilage  zur  Allg.  Zeitg.  vom  17  u.  18.  Juli,  1895.) 
Eger  Die  Binnenschiffahrt  in  Europa  und  Nordamerika.     Berlin,  1899. 
Sympher.     Die    wirtschaftliche    Bedeutung    des    Rhein-Elbe-Kanals.     Berlin, 

1899. 
Sympher.     Die  Zunahme  der  Binnenschiffahrt  in  Deutschland  1875-95.     Ber- 
lin,  1899.     (S.-A.  aus  "Zeitschr  f.  Binnenschiffahrt.") 
Priismann.     Denkschrift  iiber  den  Entwurf  eines  Rhein-Elbe-Kanals.     Ber- 
lin, 1899. 
Ulrich,  F.     Staffeltarif  und  Wasserstrassen.     Berlin,  1894. 
V.  Weber.     Die  Wasserstrassen  Nordeuropas.     Leipzig,  1881. 
Bubendey.     Die    modernen    technischen    Fortschritte    auf    dem    Gebiete    der 
Kanal  und  Flusschiffahrt    (Vortrag,   abgedruckt  im   Bayerischen   Indus- 
trie und  Gewerbeblatt  1899,  S.  245  ff.)    Fortgesetzt,  1907. 
Cords,   Th.M.     Die   Bedeutung   der   Binnenschiffahrt    fiir   die   deutsche   See- 
schiffahrt  (Miinchener  voltwirtsch.     Studien,  81.     Stiick,  Berlin  u.  Stutt- 
gart, 1906.) 
Johnson,  Emory  R.     Inland  Waterways :   Their  Relation  to  Transportation. 
Fliiladelphia,  1893.     American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science. 

Upon  the  Question  of  Tolls  on  Waterways  Consult : 
Ulrich,  F.     Staatseisenbahnen,  Staatswasscrstrassen  und  die  deutsche  Wirt- 

schaftspolitik.     Leipzig,   1898. 
Zoepfl,    G.     Die    Finanzpolitik   der    Wasserstrassen    (Heft   36    der    Schriften 

des   Deutsch-Ohsterr-Ungar.    Verbandes   fiir   Binnenschiffahrt).    Berlin, 

1898. 


262  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

Kritik   der   neusten   Arguniente   fiir    Abgaben   auf  den   natiirlichen   Wasser- 

strassen  von  Lotz,  Hatschek,  Stein.     (Heft  40  der  Schriften  des  Deutsclr 

Oesterr-Ungar.     Verbandes  fiir  Binnenschififahrt.)    Berlin,  i8g8. 
Schumacher,   H.     Zur   frage  der   Binnenschiffahrtsabgaben;     Berlin,    1901. 
Bd.  89  und  102  der  Schriften  des  Vereins  fiir   Sozialpolitik.     (In  Band   102 

eingehende  Literaturangaben. ) 
Peters.    Die  finanzielle   Entwickelung  der  preussichen   Binnenwasserstrassen 

(Archiv  f.   Eisenbahnwesen,    1902.) 
Mayer,  Otto.     Schiffahrtsabgaben.     Tubingen,  1907. 
Abwehr-Kundgebung  gegen  die  Wiedereinfiihrung  von  Schiffahrtsabgaben  auf 

den   natiirlichen    Wasserstrassen,    insbesondere    auf   dem   Rhein   vom    16 

Februar,   1907.     Mannheim,   1907. 
Wirminghaus,  A.     Der  Rhein  und  die   Schiffahrtsabgaben.     (Jahrbucher  fiir 

Nationalokonomie  und  Statistik,  III.     Folge,  Bd.  XXXIV,  Jena,  1907.) 


BOOK  DEPARTMENT 


NOTES 


Aimes,  H.  H.  S,      A   History  of  Slavery  in  Cuba,  151 1,   1868.     Pp.   xi,  298. 

New  York:  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons^  1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 

Aucuy,  Marc.        Lcs    Systemes    Socialistes     d'Exchange.  Pp.    vii,    372. 

Price,  3  fr.  Paris :  Felix  Alcan,  1908. 
The  second  volume  in  Alcan's  library  of  Individualism  and  Socialism  is 
a  critical  study  of  socialist  systems  of  exchange.  M.  Aucuy  undertakes  to 
show  that  socialism  of  exchange  is  impossible  without  socialism  of  pro- 
duction, and  with  this  in  view  examines,  in  both  their  theoretical  and  their 
practical  aspects,  the  systems  of  Owen  and  Proudhon,  the  less  known  ideas 
of  Vidal  and  Haeck,  and  the  comptabilisme  social  of  the  Belgian  Salvoy. 
The  main  interest  of  the  book  for  most  readers  lies  in  the  careful  exposition 
of  the  ideas  of  the  last  three  writers ;  for  the  thesis  of  the  work  is.  of 
course,  not  new,  dating  back  to  Karl  Marx-  It  is  none  the  less  worth  while 
to  examine  the  theories  of  these  "socialists  in  spite  of  themselves,"  as  Pro- 
fessor Deschamps  calls  them  in  the  introduction  to  the  book,  in  order 
to  point  out  the  fallacy  of  thinking  that  economic  nijustice  can  be  done  away 
with  by  merely  tinkering  the  system  of  exchange  without  changing  pro- 
duction. Men  have  always  tried  to  find  the  source  of  their  economic 
troubles  in  the  working  of  the  money  system,  instead  of  tracing  the  in- 
justices of  our  present  distribution  to  their  roots  in  the  system  of  production. 
M.  Aucuy's  book  is  a  justified  protest  against  this  sort  of  thinking. 

Barnard,  J.  Lynn.  Factory  Legislation  in  Pennsylvania:  Its  History  and 
Administration.  Pp.  xi,  178.  Price,  $1.50.  Philadelphia:  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  1907.  John  C.  Winston  Co.,  Selling  Agents. 
Under  this  title,  the  author  has  given  a  much  needed  and  scholarly  account 
of  this  field  of  social  progress  in  Pennsylvania.  The  subject  matter  is  divided 
almost  evenly  into  the  two  fields  of  History  and  Administration.  Under  the 
former,  the  movement  for  the  legal  regulation  of  women  and  child  labor  is 
carefully  reviewed  from  the  days  of  1824  until  the  present  date.  Allied  move- 
ments, such  as  sweatshop,  fire-escape  and  bake-shop  legislation  are  duly 
treated.  Particular  emphasis  is  thrown  on  the  gravity  of  the  child-labor  sit- 
uation in  Pennsylvania  and  the  work  of  certain  public-spirited  organizations 
and  citizens  since  1904  in  attempting  to  ameliorate  these  conditions. 

Under  the  subject  of  Administration,  the  author  shows  an  inside 
knowledge  of  the  conditions  which  make  easy  the  violation  of  the  factory 
law.  Here,  again,  he  shows  how  far  short  of  even  an  imperfect  standard 
we  have  fallen  in  regard  to  caring  for  our  future  citizens — the  children.     Dr. 

(26.0 


264  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

Barnard,  from  his  actual  experience  in  child-labor  legislation  and  from 
his  valuable  experience  as  a  teacher,  is  in  a  position  to  point  out  a  way 
to  higher  things. 

Books  such  as  this,  covering  all  the  large  industrial  states,  would  soon 
remove    the   criticism   one    sometimes    hears    that   college    courses    in    social 
welfare  would  be  very  good  were  they  not  "spread  out  so  thin." 
Barnett,  G.  E.    A  Trial  Bibliography  of  American  Trade  Union  Publications. 

Pp.  139.     Baltimore:  Johns  Hopkins  Press.     1907. 

Bazaine,  M.    La  Intcrvencion  Franccsa  en  Mexico.    Pp.  283.     Price  75  cents. 
Mexico :  G.  Garcia.     1907. 

Beazley,  C.  R.     Dazvn  of  Modern  Geography.     Vol.  III.     Pp.  xi,  638.     Price, 

$6.50.     New  York :  The  Oxford  University  Press.     1906. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 
Berens,  Lewis  H.    The  Digger  Movement  in  the  Days  of  the  Commonwealth. 

Pp.  259.     Price,  $2.00.     Chicago :   Public  Publishing  Co.,  1906. 
The   Digger   Movement, — so   called   because   the   devotees   of   the   movement 
went  out  into  the  public  commons  and  dug  tliem  up  in  an  effort  to  secure 
crops  from  the  land  which,  according  to  their  theory,  was  anybody's  for  the 
using, — centered  around  the  life  and  writings  of  Gerrard  Winstanley. 

Starting  from  a  standpoint  strictly  religious,  Winstanley  worked  out 
the  theory  of  his  digger  movement.  He  say^ :  "In  the  beginning  of  time, 
the  great  Creator,  Reason,  made  the  earth  to  be  a  common  treasury  to 
preserve  beasts,  birds,  fishes  and  man,  the  Lord  who  was  to  govern  this 
creation."  Therefore,  he  argues,  the  earth  belongs  equally  to  all.  When 
equal  freedom  of  the  land  is  denied  to  some,  this  is  a  sign  that  the  people 
are  not  really  free,  but  only  seemingly  so. 

Winstanley's  whole  doctrine  is  summed  up  in  these  words — "True  Com- 
monwealth's Freedom  lies  in  the  free  enjoyment  of  the  earth." 

He  wrote  principally  during  the  administration  of  Oliver  Cromwell.  His 
movement  was  hindered  by  the  government  officials  and  the  officers  of  the  troops 
stationed  in  his  neighborhood.  As  with  all  reform  movements,  the  people 
for  whose  benefit  the  movement  was  made  were  the  loudest  in  their  out- 
cries and  ridicule.  After  working  for  a  long  time  in  the  face  of  this  oppo- 
sition, at  the  digging  of  the  commons  and  writing  appeals  to  the  nation, 
Winstanley  was  finally  forced  to  desist.  In  his  work  we  have  perhaps  the 
first  definite  statement  of  the  thought  that  the  returns  from  natural  re- 
sources are  given  to  all  and  should  be  enjoyed  equally  by  all.  This  is  the 
doctrine  which,  worked  out  along  a  wholly  different  line  by  Henry  George, 
brings  him  to  his  single  tax  theory. 

Bierly,  W.  R.     Police  Power:    State   and   Federal.     Pp.   xxviii,  338.     Price, 

$3.50.     Philadelphia:  Recs  Welsh  &  Co.     1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 
Bond,  Beverly,  Jr.      The   Monroe   Mission    to    France,   i/g.f-i/96.      Pp.    104. 

Baltimore:  The  Johns  Hopkins  Press,  1907. 
It   is    the   professed    purpose    of   the    writer    to    present    a    detailed    account 


Book  Department  265 

of  this  affair  with  a  view  to  showing  definitely  the  circumstances  and  motives 
of  the  actors.  The  diplomatic  papers  of  the  state  department  and  the 
Monroe  papers  in  the  library  of  congress  are  found  to  shed  new  light 
on  the  inner  history  of  this  diplomatic  game.  The  study  clearly  brings 
out  the  interesting  fact  that  it  was  part  of  the  game  of  the  government  to 
appoint  Monroe  as  envoy  to  France.  France  was  suspicious  of  the  real 
purpose  of  Jay's  mission  to  Great  Britian.  Monroe,  an  Anti-Federal  and  a 
strong  French  sympathizer,  was  sent  to  allay  this  suspicion.  Due  blame  is 
accorded  the  American  government  for  withholding  from  Monroe  the 
full  extent  of  Jay's  powers,  and  so  using  him  as  a  means  of  practicing  this 
deception  on  the  French  government.  On  the  other  hand,  Monroe's  weak- 
ness in  posing  as  the  representative  of  the  American  people  instead  of  the 
government,  of  betraying  too  openly  his  feelings  for  France  and  of  publicly 
criticizing  the  government,  all  receive  due  censure. 

Belated  praise  is  accorded  Monroe  for  the  creditable  part  he  played  in 
keeping  France  at  peace  at  a  critical  period,  in  protecting  American  interests 
abroad  and  in  helping  to  secure  the  treaties  with  Algiers  and  Spain.  Alto- 
gether, it  is  an  interesting  bit  of  history,  and  the  author  has  succeeded  ui 
shedding  new  light  upon  this  episode. 
Boyd,  Carl  Evans.     Cases  on  Constitutional  Lazv.     Second  edition.     Pp.   xi, 

827.  Price,  $3.00.  Chicago:  Callaghan  &  Co.,  1907. 
This  collection  of  cases,  originally  published  in  1898,  has  been  of  increas- 
ing popularity  for  use  in  connection  with  courses  on  constitutional  law.  It 
is  a  compendious  summary  of  the  chief  decisions  on  constitutional  law, 
in  somewhat  over  eight  hundred  pages.  No  selection  can  suit  exactly 
the  requirements  of  all  students,  but  Mr.  Boyd  has  made  an  excellent 
choice  of  cases  which  the  average  man  will  find  well  adapted  to  his  wants. 

The  text  is  printed  literally  with  the  omission  only  of  the  arguments 
and  statements  of  fact  which  are  unnecessary  for  the  illustration  of  the 
point  of  law  involved.  The  notes  are  few  as  the  author  has  preferred 
to  use  the  space  they  would  have  taken  for  additional  decisions.  The  present 
edition  contains  a  supplement  giving  the  chief  decisions  from  1898  to  the 
spring  of  1904.  The  type  and  paper  are  good  and  a  substantial  buckram 
binding  insures  the  wearing  qualities  of  the  book. 
Boynton.  F.  D.      School  Civics.     Pp.   xli,  368.     Price,  $1.00.     Boston:   Ginn 

&  Co.     1907- 
Brewster,  William  N.      The  Evolution  of  Nczv  China.       Pp.   316.       Price, 

$1  25.  Cincinnati :  Jennings  &  Graham,  1907. 
The  book  is  the  substance  of  a  series  of  lectures  delivered  by  the  author 
before  the  students  of  the  Boston  University  School  of  Theology.  The  object 
is  to  "discuss  the  trend  of  events,"  and  the  author,  being  a  missionary,  devoted 
somewhat  over  half  the  volume  to  the  trend  of  things  religious  tor 
h  av  rage  reader  therefore,  the  first  half  of  the  book  holds  the  chief  inter- 
est •,Te  later  chaplers  are  hardly  likely  to  appeal  to  anyone  but  the  enthusi- 
astic  mission  worker. 


266  The  Annals  of  the  .linerican  Academy 

In  the  chapter  on  the  "Greatness  of  China"  is  given  a  very  clear  and  not 
seriously  exaggerated  summary  of  the  tremendous  resources  of  the  empire, 
and  a  brief  description  of  the  highly-developed  system  of  agriculture.  It 
is  certainly  a  most  glowing  future  which  the  author's  enthusiasm  leads 
him  to  paint.  The  Chinese  are  to  people  the  vast  wilderness  of  Borneo; 
they  are  to  be  the  dominant  race  of  the  eastern  tropics,  through  intermarriage 
with  the  natives;  they  are  to  be  the  intellectual  nation  of  the  Orient;  and 
they  will  largely  control  Oriental  commerce  "before  the  middle  of  this  cen- 
tury. All  of  these  conclusions  are  derived  by  the  author  from  an  analysis 
of  Chinese  character  and  things  Chinese.  It  is  often  difficult,  however,  to 
follow  some  of  the  leaps  in  his  logic. 

From  the  political  standpoint,  Mr.  Brewster  regards  China  as  "a  great 
people,  but  an  imbecile  state ;  commercially  sound,  but  politically  rotten." 
This  condition  he  ascribes  to  the  presence  of  the  Manchu  rulers,  a  non- 
Chinese  dynasty,  on  the  throne,  and  the  universal  evil  of  political  graft 
which,  from  examples  cited,  must  even  surpass  that  of  our  own  more  en- 
lightened western  civilization.  The  remedy  for  the  first  of  these  evils  will 
be  found  in  the  impending  constitutional  government,  and  for  the  latter 
in  the  spread  of  Christianity,  by  which  loyalty  to  the  state  will  be  made 
to  replace  the  present  attitude  of  ancestor  worship  and  selfish  interests. 

The  low  industrial  condition  is  not  to  be  attributed  to  overpopulation, 
unproductive  soil,  laziness  or  intellectual  incapacity,  but  to  the  fact 
that  the  "brain  and  the  brawn  are  not  united."  In  support  of  this  argu- 
ment, the  author  draws  very  vivid  pictures  of  the  primitive  methods  en- 
countered in  every  field  of  labor.  He  believes  firmly  in  the  solution  by 
industrial  education,  but  weakens  his  argument  by  assuming  that  the  edu- 
cation is  to  come  from  missionaries.  Unfortunately,  the  average  missionary 
knows  all  too  little  about  farming  implements  and  machine  shops.  Mr. 
Brewster's  enthusiasm  for  his  work  appears  to  have  obscured  his  recognition 
of  the  fact  that  trade  and  commerce  and  general  world  intercourse  are  the 
factors  which  have  lifted  nations  in  the  past  and  must  be  expected  to  do  the 
major  part  of  the  work  in  the  future. 

The    main    theme    of    the    book    appears    to    be    that    missions    and    the 
spread   of  Christianity   will  prove   the   solution   of  all    difficulties   and  make 
China  the  foremost  nation  of  the   East.     But  the  experience   in  Japan  and 
recent  progress  there  are  not  easily  reconciled  to  this  view. 
Brisco,    Norris  A.       The  Economic  Policy   of  Robert    IValpolc.       Pp.    217. 

Price,  $1.50.  New  York:  Macmillan  Company,  1907. 
Thorough  study  has  been  accorded  to  the  large  part  played  by  Robert 
Walpole  in  the  constitutional  history  of  his  period  and  to  his  political  and 
foreign  policy;  scant  and  only  incidental  treatment  to  Walpole,  the  financier 
and  economist.  It  is  an  era  of  great  questions  in  politics  and  foreign  policies. 
It  is  likewise  an  era  of  important  financial  and  economic  questions.  As 
the  author  says,  "There  has  hitherto  been  no  systematic  treatment  of  the 
economic  policy  of  Robert  Walpole.   and   it   was   felt  here   was   a   field   for 

study." 

This  comprehensive  and  orderly  treatment  is  a  welcome  addition  to  the 


Book  Department  267 

library  of  the  student  of  economics.  But  it  has  also  a  great  value  to  the 
student  of  political  history,  for  historians  are  realizing  to  a  greater  degree  the 
modifying  influence  of  economic  affairs  on  the  course  of  political  events. 

To  his  fiscal  policy  one  chapter  is  devoted.  An  account  is  given  of 
Walpole's  sound  financial  judgment  amidst  the  disorders  attendant  upon 
the  bursting  of  the  speculative  bubble,  as  likewise  of  his  keen  foresight  in 
restoring  confidence  in  the  government  by  instituting  a  sinking  fund  to 
guarantee  payment  of  the  national  debt.  Walpole  was  a  firm  advocate  of 
the  merchantilistic  policy  of  trade.  A  discussion  of  his  endeavors  to  put 
this  policy  into  practice  by  reforms  in  the  taxes  and  customs  duties  covers 
two  chapters.  His  excise  plan  and  his  eflforts  to  repeal  the  duties  on  imports 
met  great  opposition  and,  in  general,  failed  of  realization,  and  shows  that  Wal- 
pole as  a  reformer  was  simply  in  advance  of  his  time.  The  student  of 
colonial  history  will  find  an  interesting  and  able  chapter  on  Walpole's 
colonial  policy  and  his  system  of  bounties.  To  his  work  of  developing  home 
industry  and  building  up  a  foreign  trade,  two  chapters  are  allotted.  The 
monograph  is  well  and  clearly  written. 

Browne,  H.  A.     Bonaparte  in  Egypt  and  ttie  Egyptians  of  To-Day.    Pp.  410. 

Price,  $3.00.     New  York:     Charles   Scribner's   Sons,   Importers.     1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 
Bullock,  Charles  J.    finances  and  Financial  Policy  of  Massachiiscffs  from 

1780   to   1903.     Pp.    144.     Price,   $1.00.     New   York:  American  Economic 

Association,  1907. 
This  historical  sketch  of  the  finances  of  Massachusetts  as  a  commonwealth 
for  a  century  and  a  quarter  is  purely  one  of  general  questions  of  finance 
without  regard  to  details  of  legislation  or  administration.  The  author 
"has  been  content  to  describe  policies,  estimate  critically  their  results,  and 
allow  the  narrative  to  point  its  own  moral,  if  moral  it  has." 

The  financial  history  of  the  state  is  divided  into  six  periods,  to  each 
of  which  is  devoted  a  chapter.  The  first  period,  from  1780- 1794,  is  one 
concerned  with  the  efforts  towards  the  rehabilitation  of  disordered  finances, 
the  heritage  of  Revolutionary  days-  The  next  period,  1794- 1825,  witnesses 
the  extinction  of  the  debt  and  times  of  financial  prosperity.  The  period 
from  1825  to  i860  is  probably  one  of  the  most  dramatic  interest  in  the 
annals  of  state  finances.  In  the  history  of  Massachusetts  it  is  an  era  of 
internal  improvements,  and  of  general  prosperity  attendant  upon  the  specu- 
lative movement  which  had  its  climax  in  the  panic  of  1837.  and  it  sees  the 
gradually  widening  gap  between  expenditures  and  revenues  and  the  unsuccessful 
efforts  to  avoid  a  state  tax.  The  history  of  state  finances  of  this  period 
has  been  neglected  and  there  is  need  of  a  comprehensive  and  orderly  treat- 
ment of  the  disordered  finances  of  the  states,  with  the  question  of  financing 
internal  improvements,  issues  of  bonds,  repudiation  of  bonds,  and  assumption 
of  these  debts  by  the  federal  government. 

The  Civil  War  period  is  one  of  onerous  financial  burdens,  caused  by 
war  loans,  with  the  necessity  of  finding  new  sources  of  income.  The  period 
after  the  war,  down  to  1880,  concerns  itself  with  the  difficulties  of  financing 


268 


The  Annals  of  the  A)neriean  Academy 


railroad  enterprises,  of  the  crisis  of  1873  and  the  consequent  retrenchment 
m  all  the  departments  of  the  government.  The  last  quarter  of  a  century 
IS  one  of  steady  increase  in  state  expenditures  and  growth  of  a  new  state 
debt. 

The  appendix  contains  tables  of  statistics  of  state  tax  from  1789  to 
1905,  and  the  ordinary  revenues  and  expenditures  for  the  period  of  1816  to 
i860.  There  is  also  a  bibliography.  Works  dealing  with  figures  and  finances 
are  apt  to  be  dry  and  dull,  but  it  is  a  pleasure  to  find  in  this  monograph 
an   account  very  clear,   comprehensive   and   readable. 

Bureau  of  American  Ethnology.       Twenty- fourth  Annual  Report.       1902-03. 

Pp.  xl,  846.  Washington  :  Government  Printing  Office,  1907. 
In  addition  to  the  usual  reports  of  the  work  done  by  the  bureau,  this  volume 
contains  an  excellent  monograph,  by  Stewart  Culin,  on  the  Games  of  the 
North  American  Indians,  which  is  by  all  odds  the  best  study  of  the  subject 
in  print,  and  should  go  far  towards  dispelling  much  of  the  still  extant 
popular  tradition  that  the  Indian  was  sullen  and  morose,  with  no  fondness 
for  play.     There  are  many  illustrations  accompanying  the  text. 

Bureau    of  American   Ethnology.       Tw^enty-fifth   Annual    Report.        1903-04. 

Pp.    xxix,    296.        Plates    cxxix.        Washington:    Government    Printing 

Office,  1907. 
The  two  papers  in  this  volume  were  written  by  Dr.  Jesse  Walter  Fewkes. 
The  first,  on  "The  Aborigines  of  Porto  Rico  and  Neighboring  Islands," 
is  an  important  contribution  to  our  meager  knowledge  of  the  earlier  inhab- 
itants of  these  islands,  even  if  the  material  is  largely  drawn  from  early  accounts, 
supplemented,  so  far  as  possible,  by  personal  observation  of  extant  remains. 
The  second  paper  deals  with  "Certain  Antiquities  of  Eastern  Mexico" — a 
description  of  some  important  ruins  and  cultural  objects.  The  text  is 
supplemented  by  a  large  number  of  plates. 

Calvert,    A.    F.,    and    Gallichan,    W.    M.     Cordova.        Pp,    108,    159    plates 

New  York :  John  Lane  Co.,  1907. 
This  book  is  well  planned  to  put  the  reader  in  a  frame  of  mind  to  appre- 
ciate the  charm  of  Cordova,  the  ancient  Moslem  capital  of  Spain.  To  do 
the  city  justice  one  must  love  the  past  and  see  file  before  him  the  various 
nationalities  which  at  different  periods  have  contributed  the  elements  which 
in  ruins  make   up   the   Cordova  of  to-day. 

Beautifully  situated  in  a  fertile  valley  surrounded  by  rugged  mountains, 
clean, — for  a  Spanish  city, — quiet,  prosperous,  but  wholly  lacking  in  enter- 
prise, and  with  its  face  turned  toward  the  past,  the  city  is  possessed  by  a 
certain  unreality  which  adds  greatly  to  its  charm.  It  is  not  forbidding, 
as  is  Toledo,  nor  has  it  the  air  of  desertion  present  in  so  many  of  the 
old  Spanish  cities,  but  it  is  a  capital  left  one  side  by  the  stream  of  present- 
day  life  and  fully  content  to  preserve  its  medi?eval  characteristics. 

The  author  has  excellent  powers  of  description,  and  leads  us  around 
the  city  and  through  the  mosque  in  a  way  that  enables  the  reader  to  catch 
the  spirit  of  the  place  exceptionally  well.  A  historical  .sketch  of  three 
chapters   gives   the   setting  of   the   town   in   the   lif©  of  the  peninsula,   and 


Book  Department  269 

dnother  chapter  introduces  us  to  its  famous  sons,  Seneca,  Lucan,  El  Gran 
Capitan  and  others  less  noted.  One  hundred  and  fifty-nine  excellent  plates 
give  an  outlook  upon  the  chief  objects  of  interest.  These  form  almost  half 
of  the  book  and  contribute  to  its  value  in  at  least  the  same  proportion. 

Calvert,  T.   H.    Regulation   of   Commerce   under   the   Federal   Constitution. 

Pp.  xiv,  380.     Price,  $3.00.     Northport,  N.  Y. :  E.  Thompson  Co.     1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 

Casson,  H.  N.      The  Romance   of  Steel.     Pp.   xiv,  376.     Price,  $2.50.     New 

York :  A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co.     1907. 
See  Book  Reviews. 

Chatterton-Hill,  George.      Heredity  and  Selection  in  Sociology.       Pp.  xxx, 

571.  Price,  $4.50.  New  York:  The  Macmillan  Co.,  1907. 
"It  will  suffice  to  say  that  training  in  sociology  must  be  preceded  by  training 
in  biology;  and  that  none  of  the  great  problems  of  sociology  can  be  under- 
stood, much  less  solved,  unless  the  sociologist  possesses  sufficient  training 
in  biology,  and  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  facts  concerning  heredity  and 
selection."  The  book  begins,  therefore,  with  a  long  and  really  good  dis- 
cussion of  heredity.  Our  criticism  upon  these  first  one  hundred  and  sixty 
pages  is  that  the  author  has  allowed  himself  to  be  drawn  too  much  into 
the  discussion  of  moot  points  which  should  be  left  to  the  biologist,  and  that 
he  has  clung  too  closely  to  the  ideas  of  Weismann  and  seemingly  underrated 
the  work  of  De  Vries.  It  is  almost  needless  to  add  that  the  theory  of  the 
inheritance  of  acquired  characteristics  is  rejected. 

The  chief  criticism  of  the  rest  of  the  volume  is  its  lack  of  plan  or 
continuity  and  the  wholly  eclectic  method  of  treatment.  Some  chapters  seem 
to  be  reprints  of  articles  elsewhere  used,  while  within  a  given  chapter  very 
divergent  topics  are  considered.  Over  one  hundred  pages  are  devoted 
to  Part  II — Social  Pathology,  which  includes  six  chapters — Suicide,  Insanity 
and  Syphilis  as  Social  Factors;  Social  Selection  and  Inverse  Selection;  Con- 
flict and  Progress ;  Concluding  Remarks.  Occasionally  there  is  very  careless 
use  of  language  or  else  the  author  forgets  his  biology,  as  when  he  writes 
of  "hereditary  syphilis." 

In  Part  III  he  discusses  The  Biological  and  Traditional  Factors  of 
Race  Progress;  The  Bankruptcy  of  Liberalism;  Socialism  and  Science; 
Religion  as  a  Social  Force.  At  times  he  seems  to  think  that  society  is 
going  to  decay.  Neither  liberalism,  socialism,  science  nor  Christianity  will 
be  effective  in  promoting  social  development.  Although  Christianity  as 
now  understood  will  fail,  yet  some  religious  system  will  develop.  Although 
Mr.  Hill  disputes  Mr.  Benjamin  Kidd's  arguments  he  nevertheless  agrees 
in  "the  necessity  of  a  supra-rational   ideal  for  the  individual   and   society." 

For  the  general  idea  of  the  author  there  is  much  to  be  said.  His  present 
exposition  is  not  satisfactory  and  should  not  be  final.  Many  of  the  crit- 
icisms and  suggestions  he  makes  are  very  valuable  and  deserve  attention. 
"Instead  of  seeking  to  extirpate  diseased  living  generations,  in  the  inter- 
ests of  the  race  which  is  to  come  after  us,  every  resource  of  applied  science 


270  The  Aiiiials  of  tiic  American  Academy 

is  devoted  to  prolonging  the  life  of  weak  and  biologically  useless  persons, 
thus  permitting  their  reproduction";  or  again,  "So  far,  then,  as  altruistic 
influences  are  at  work  in  social  evolution,  it  is  impossible  to  admit  the 
beneficial  tendencies  of  these  influences."  If  true,  these  developments  demand 
radical   action.     The  volume  deserves  the  attention  of  serious   students. 

Commons,  John  R.        Proportional   Representation.        Pp.    x,    369.        Price, 

$1.25.  New  York :  Macmillan  Co.,  1907. 
This  is  a  reprint  of  a  well-known  text  first  published  in  1896.  The  clearly 
discussed  thesis  of  the  book  is  already  familiar  to  our  readers.  Six  appen- 
dices bring  the  subject  down  to  date  and  place  greater  stress  upon  certain 
subjects  than  was  given  them  in  the  original  work.  Primary  elections  and 
the  initiative  and  referendum,  especially  in  their  relation  to  municipal  gov- 
ernment, are  considered  here.  The  additions  to  the  book  serve  to  rein- 
force the  argument  against  the  injustice  of  our  present  method  of  elections 
and  to  demonstrate  one  of  the  causes  of  the  much  discussed  "failure  of 
representative  government." 

Conyngton,  T.    The  Modern  Corporation.     2d  Ed.     Pp.  xii,  290.     Price,  $2.00. 

New  York :  Ronald  Press.     1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 

Cotes,  E.    Signs  and  Portents  in   the  Far  East.     Pp.   xi,  308.     Price.  $2.50. 

New   York:   G  P.   Putnam's   Sons.     1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 

Creanga,  G.  D.   Grunhesitzvcrteilung  und  Bauernfrage  in  Rnniiinien.     Pp.  207. 
Price,   5.40m.     Leipzig:    Duncker   &    Humblot.     1907. 

Cronbach,  E.     Die    Osterreichiselie    Spitj:en!iaiisindiistrir.     Pp.     212.     Price, 
5m.     Wien :  Franz  Deuticke.     1907. 

Cronbach,  E.      Das    landicirtseliaftliclie    Betriebsproblein.      Pp.    338.     Wien: 
Carl  Konegen.     1907. 

Day,  C.     A  History  of  Commerce.     Pp.  xli,  626.     Price,  $2.00.     New  York: 

Longmans,  Green  &  Co.     1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 
Dow,  E.  W.     Atlas  of  European  History.     Pp.  46.     Plates,  32.     New  York: 

Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  1907. 
Maps  well  used  are  one  of  the  most  efficient  aids  in  impressing  the  facts 
of  history  connected  with  the  national  territorial  growth  upon  the  mind 
of  the  student.  This  excellent  collection  has  the  virtue  not  only  of  being 
published  at  a  moderate  price,  but  covers  the  historical  development  of  the 
European  nations  from  earliest  times  down  to  the  present — not  for  a  single 
period  only.  The  presentation  is  made  in  detail  great  enough  to  meet  the 
needs  of  one  intent  upon  a  special  field  and  embodies  the  results  of 
the  best  European  historical  map  making. 
Dunning,  W.  A.       Reeonstruction:    Political   and   Economic.      Pp.    xvi,   378. 

Price,  $2.00.     New  York :  Harper  &  Bros.     1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 


Book  Department  271 

Ein  Land  dcr  Zukunft.       By  a   German   Officer.       Pp.   274.       Price,  5   m. 

Munich  :  J.  Greger. 
This  interesting  record  of  a  trip  through  one  of  the  most  promising  of 
South  American  repubHcs  gives  the  reader  a  vivid  impression  of  both  the 
accomplishments  and  needs  of  the  Argentine.  Contrasts  are  numerous. 
The  finely  planned  capital  and  the  raw  provincial  towns,  the  good  railways 
and  the  impassable  country  roads,  the  unexhaustible  agricultural  resources 
of  the  pampas  and  the  barrenness  of  the  desert  highlands  and  many  others 
of  the  striking  contrasts  to  be  found   in  the   republic   are  passed   in   review. 

The  national  ambitions  of  Germany  appear  in  the  point  of  view  of 
the  writer  constantly.  Argentine  is  a  land  of  the  future,  the  best  point  for 
emigration  in  the  twentieth  century  as  the  United  States  was  in  the 
nineteenth.  Toward  this  land  of  promise  German  emigration  should  be 
con.sciously  turned.  The  prosperous  condition  of  the  German  colonists 
settled  in  the  country  is  a  matter  of  justifiable  pride,  but  one  is  surprised 
to  hear,  in  spite  of  the  common  belief  in  the  preponderance  of  English 
capital  and  enterprise  in  this  part  of  the  world,  that  '"Imports  and  Exports 
...  are  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  Germans."  The  greatest  German  colony 
of  the  future,  at  least  in  an  ethnic  sense,  should  be  in  Argentina.  Though 
this  national  caste  pervades  many  of  the  pages  the  author  gives  interesting 
sketches  of  political,  social,  industrial  and  military  developments  which  are 
of  real  value  as  sources  of  facts.  The  observations  on  present-day  conditions 
are  keen  and  apparently  critical,  though  often  the  author  allows  himself 
to  be  lead  for  a  page  or  two  into  the  role  of  the  prophet  rather  than  that 
of  the  interpreter — a  privilege  which  should  be  granted  to  an  author  who 
avowedly  writes  of  a  land  of  the  future.  In  justice,  it  must  be  said,  however, 
that  as  a  rule  the  author  walks  "with  his  feet  upon  the  ground." 

The  Argentine  is  to  be  the  leader  of  South  America.  With  the  crea- 
tion of  a  strong  spirit  of  nationality  and  an  army  so  strong  as  to  impose 
peace  on  enemies  both  domestic  and  foreign,  the  country  would  at  once 
spring  into  the  position  of  permanent  leader  on  the  continent.  This  is  in 
summary  the  message  of  the  work. 

Fabrication  ct  Travail  die  J'crrc.     Pp.  xxiv.  263.     Brussels :  J.  Lebegue  et  Cie. 
1907. 

Forbes-Lindsay,  C.  H.        The  Pliilit^piiics.       Pp.  566.       Price,  $3.00.       Phila- 
delphia :   J.  C.  Winston  Co.,   1906. 
This  book  is  a  reprint,  under  separate  title,  of  volume  two  of  the  author's 
work,  "America's   Insular  Possessions,"  reviewed  in  the  Annal.s,  July,   1907. 

Forrest,  J.  Dorsey.      The    Development    of    Western    Civilization.     Pp.    xii, 

406.  Price.  $2.00.  Chicago :  The  University  of  Chicago  Press,  1907. 
Primarily  the  book  is  a  collection  of  historic  facts  tied  together  loosely 
and  at  times  having  little  apparent  connection.  In  that  the  work  is  dis- 
appointing, for  one  naturally  expects  a  "development"  to  show  an  un- 
broken line  of  growth  and  advance.  The  work  represents  an  enormous 
amount  of  research,  but  a  woeful  lack  of  classification  and  definite  arrange^ 
ment. 


272  The  Annals  of  tlie  American  Academy 

The  author  takes  up  first  ancient  society,  and  treats  of  the  influence 
which  Israel,  Egypt  and  Phoenicia,  Greece  and  Rome  had  on  the  later 
thought ;  then  passes  on  to  the  problems  of  Mediaeval  Society ;  The  Organ- 
ization of  Agriculture ;  The  Development  of  Commerce ;  The  Reformation ; 
and  ends  with  a  discussion  of  modern  social  movements. 

There  is  a  tendency  in  the  early  part  of  the  book  to  explain  every- 
thing in  terms  of  environment, — particularly  geographical  environment.  For 
example,  on  page  24,  is  the  statement  that  Greek  characteristics  "were 
due  in  part  to  geographical  conditions,  and  in  part  to  the  social  life  which, 
as  shown  above,  was  largely  determined  by  those  conditions."  In  other 
words,  geography,  acting  directly  and  indirectly,  made  Greek  characteristics. 
While  the  advocates  of  the  theory  of  the  influence  of  geography  on  human 
actions  and  thought  carry  their  ideas  to  extremes,  they  would  scarcely 
make  so  far-reaching  a  statement  as  this  one. 

In  dealing  with  social  and  economic  problems  the  author  shows  a  singu- 
lar lack  of  appreciation  of  the  practical  side  of  questions.  His  statements 
are  bookish  and  not  careful  or  well  considered.  The  discussion  of  such 
problems  as  the  Factory  System,  the  Industrial  Revolution  and  the  Rise 
of  Socialism  are  disappointing. 

Passing  over  the  fact  that  the  book  makes  difficult  and  rather  uninter- 
esting reading, — for  that  is  a  fault  common  to  a  great  mass  of  recent 
literature  on  social  science, — one  may  at  least  expect,  on  finishing  a  chapter, 
or  section  of  a  chapter,  to  have  in  mind  some  definite  thought  which  the 
author  has  been  trying  to  convey.  But  this  is  not  the  case  with  "The  Devel- 
opment of  Western  Civilization." 

The  book  suffers  from  a  fault  which  has  become  unpleasantly  common 
among  modern  works  of  the  character.  The  author  has  assembled  a  large 
number  of  facts  and  has  then  written  a  book  containing  these  facts,  without 
making  any  great  ^attempt  to  see  that  the  facts  formed  a  logical  sequence, 
or  that  a  consecutive  thought  formed  a  center  for  the  book.  In  short, 
the  facts  in  the  present  work  are  undigested.  Facts  should  suggest  ideas, 
and  ideas  should  lead  to  conclusions,  but  the  author  has  been  satisfied  with 
the  facts. 

Fouike,  W.  D.  Translated  by.  History  of  the  Langobards,  by  Paul  the  Dea- 
con. Pp.  437.  Price,  $1.50.  New  York:  Longmans,  Green  &  Com- 
pany, 1907. 
This  history,  by  Paul  the  Deacon,  one  of  the  best  known  authors  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  has  been  translated  into  German,  French  and  Italian,  but 
it  has  remained  for  the  present  translator  to  do  a  good  work  in  giving  the 
student  an  English  version.  The  introduction  contains  a  scholarly  and 
careful  treatment  of  the  life  and  writings  of  Paul  the  Deacon  with  a 
historical  and  literary  estimate  of  his  work.  The  body  of  the  history  is 
accompanied  with  full  explanatory  and  critical  notes  which  show  the 
work  of  a  trained  scholar.  The  appendices  contain  a  discussion  of  the 
ethnological  status  of  the  Langobards;  an  account  of  the  sources  from  which 
Paul  derived  his  hi.story,  and  a  translation  of  Paul's  poems.  The  volume 
also  contains  three  very  helpful  and  instructive  maps,  and  a  good  index. 


Book  Department  273 

It   is   a   splendid   piece   of   work   in   every   way,    scholarly,    scientific    and 
painstaking.     Students  of  Italian  history  will  be   grateful  to  the  translator. 

Friedman,  H.  G.      The  Taxation  of  Corporations  in  Massachusetts.     Pp.  178. 
Price,  $1.50.     New  York:  Columbia  University  Press.     1907. 

Garcia,  G.     Correspondencia    Secreta    de    los    Principalcs    Intcrvencionistas 
Mcxicanos.     Pp.  316.     Mexico:  Ch.  Bouret.     1907. 

Gilbert,  J.  H.    Trade  and  Currency  in  Early  Oregon.     Pp.  126.     Price,  $1.00. 
New  York :    Columbia  University  Press.     1907. 

Goodrich,  A.  N.     Cruise  and  Captures  of  the  Alabama.     Pp.  216.     Price,  75 
cents.     Minneapolis :  H.  W.  Wilson  Co. 

Griffis,  W.  E.       Corca,   the  Hermit   Nation.        Pp.    xxvii,   512.     Price,   $2.50. 

New  York:  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1907. 
Five  new  chapters  added  to  those  contained  in  the  former  seven  editions  of 
Mr.  Griffis'  book  made  up  the  present  work.  Since  1882,  when  the  first 
edition  appeared,  this  book  has  been  the  most  widely  read  interpretation 
of  the  little  known  and  less  understood  country  which  has  just  recently 
passed  out  of  the  list  of  nations  into  that  of  dependencies.  The  author's 
intimacy  with  Oriental  affairs  through  his  former  connection  with  the 
University  of  Tokio  and  his  wide  travel  and  long  residence  in  eastern 
countries  lends  authority  to  his  opinion.  It  comes  as  a  relief  after  the 
severe  adverse  criticism  to  which  almost  all  writers  have  subjected  the 
Koreans  to  hear  that  there  lies  within  the  people  at  large  the  possibility 
of  a  regeneration.  The  author,  however,  does  not  blink  the  shortcomings 
of  the  government,  and  states  many  facts  which  point  to  the  justification 
of  the  alleged  "high-handed"  policy  of  Japan.  With  the  Japanese  manage- 
ment of  the  situation  he  is  not  altogether  satisfied.  The  Nipponese  have 
been  too  careless  in  allowing  the  lower  class,  the  adventurers  and  sharpers 
to  stream  into  the  country  before  the  government  had  been  established  upon 
a  basis  such  that  it  could  cope  with  the  new  responsibilities.  In  its  new 
form  the  book  brings  up  to  date  a  history  filled  with  misfortunes  and  dis- 
appointments— the  story  of  a  nation  ill-fated  both  on  account  of  its  peculiar 
international  situation  and  the  almost  unexampled  inefficiency  of  its  ruling 
class. 
Griffis,  William  Elliot.      The   Japanese   Nation   in   Evolution.     Pp.    xii,   408. 

Price,  $1.25.  New  York:  Thomas  Y.  Crowell,  1907. 
"The  unchanging  trait  in  a  Japanese  is  to  covet  things  better  and  ever 
to  seek  a  more  excellent  way."  With  this  point  of  view  the  author  in  his 
latest  book  on  Japan  traces  the  development  of  this  people  linking  Orient 
and  Occident,  from  their  early  Aryan  ancestors,  through  picturesque  and 
bloody  Mongolian  centuries  up  to  their  present  "more  excellent  way."  He 
affirms  that  "no  other  nation  is  so  fitted  to  welcome  the  new  without  losing 
the  old.  .  .  .  Little  do  they  invent.  Mightily  do  they  adopt."  Mr. 
Griffis'  faith  in  Japan's  possibilities  of  growth  (based  on  his  wide  knowledge 
of  country  and  people)  is  inspiring.  He  believes  the  Japanese  to  be  "not 
only  the  most  improvable  race  in  Asia,  but  possibly  even  in  the  world." 


274  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

An  immense  amount  of  material,  geographical,  legendary,  archaeological 
and  historic,  produces  some  confusion  when  condensed  into  so  small  a 
book,  and  the  frequency  of  strange  names  adds  further  difficulty  in  reading. 

Hague  Ordains,  As  The.     Pp.  vi,  359.     Price,  $1.50.     New  York:  Henry  Holt 

&  Co.     1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 

Haines,  H.  S.     Rail-way  Corporations  as  Public  Servants.     Pp.  233.     Price, 

$1.50.     New  York:  Macmillan  Co.     1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 

Hainisch,  M.     Die    entstehung   dcs   Kapitahinscs.      Pp.    112.      Price,    2.50m. 
Leipzig :  Franz  Deuticke.     1907. 

Hall,  Bolton.     Three  Acres  and  Liberty.     Pp.  xxii,  435.     Price,  $1.75.     New 

York :  Macmillan  Company,  1907. 
How  can  we  be  free  from  the  burdens  which  city  life  has  imposed  upon  us 
and  from  the  uncertainty  of  securing  a  living  in  our  modern  industrial 
system?  This  is  the  question  which  the  author  attempts  to  answer  in  the 
four  hundred  pages  of  "Three  Acres  and  Liberty."  The  book  is  really  a 
brief  for  intensive  farming.  Only  a  few  pages  are  devoted  to  theory,  the 
greater  number  being  taken  up  with  very  practical  discussions  of  the  kinds 
of  crops  that  should  be  raised  on  certain  lands,  the  character  of  land  which 
should  be  purchased  or  rented  and  the  method  of  treating  this  purchased 
or  rented  land  after  it  has  been  secured. 

The  author  deals  in  a  very  comprehensive  way  with  many  of  the  be- 
setting problems  of  the  small  farmer.  He  gives  instances  of  small  farmers 
who  have  secured  a  living  and  paid  off  mortgages  on  two  or  three  acres 
of  land  which  others  passed  by  as  useless.  The  average  American  farmer 
does  not  know  what  intensive  farming  means.  He  "thinks  that  he  has 
done  well  if  he  gets  150  or  200  bushels  of  potatoes  from  an  acre.  He 
does  not  know  that  others  have  gotten  1,284  bushels."  By  intensive  culture, 
by  care,  by  scientific  methods,  a  man  can  raise  on  ten  acres  more  and  bet- 
ter produce  than  is  raised  by  the  average  farmer  on  fifty  acres. 

Of  course  the  book  deals  with  small  farming  near  the  city  more  than 
with  extensive  farming  in  remote  districts,  one  of  the  author's  contentions 
being  that  a  man  moving  out  a  few  miles  can  enjoy  all  of  the  benefits  of 
city  life  without  incurring  any  of  its  discomforts.  The  book  is  well  worth 
the  careful  consideration  of  any  farmer  who  is  producing  truck;  it  is 
invaluable  to  any  one  who  is  contemplating  small-scale  farming  near  a 
large  city;  and  it  presents  a  ray  of  hope  to  the  man  in  the  city  who,  with 
a  small  salary  and  a  large  family,  is  struggling  to  make  his  salary  meet 
his  necessities  and  at  the  same  time  to  secure  for  his  children  an  education. 

Hart,  Gordon.      Woman   and   the  Race.     Pp.   264.     Price,   $1.00.     "Westwood, 

Mass. :  The  Ariel  Press,  1907. 
The    author    deals    in    a    very    striking    manner    with    the    relation    between 
modern   women  and  the   social   organism.     He   says   that  one  of  the   great 


Book  Department  275 

evils  of  the  day  is  ignorance  among  young  mothers.  We  would  not  dare 
entrust  our  national  defence  to  an  army  which  had  never  had  any  military 
training,  and  yet  each  year  thousands  of  children  are  born  whose  mothers' 
only  preparation  for  caring  for  the  future  generation  has,  in  a  great  number 
of  cases,  been  secured  from  playmates  and  companions  whose  ideas  were 
not  of  the  most  desirable.  Neither  in  the  school  nor  in  the  home  are  men 
and  women  prepared  for  their  reciprocal  relations  in  life,  and  the  marriage 
contract  has  generated  into  a  mere  joining  together  of  persons  who  are 
often  dissimilar  in  every  thought  and  habit. 

Upon  the  knowledge  or  lack  of  knowledge  of  these  mothers  and  fathers 
will  depend  the  joy  or  misery,  health  or  sickness,  happiness  or  wretched- 
ness of  millions  of  children.  The  author  shows  a  wide  knowledge  and 
expresses  his  thought  in  a  way  that  deserves  an  audience  seldom  accorded 
to  a  modern  book  not  in  novel  form- 

Hazen,  Allen.    Clean   Water  and  Hoiv  to  Get  It.     Pp.  x,  178.     New  York: 

John  Wiley  &  Sons,  1907. 
It  is  seldom  that  one  finds  a  book  dealing  with  a  technical  subject  which 
has  the  universal  interest  of  Mr.  Hazen's  recent  volume.  In  the  localities 
where  the  population  is  increasingly  denser  every  year,  the  problem  of 
preventing  or  overcoming  contamination  and  pollution  of  the  water  supply 
is  constantly  more  difficult  to  solve.  Few  municipalities  can  afford,  or  are 
so  situated  as  to  be  able  to  control  the  entire  catchment  area  from  which 
their  water  supply  is  derived. 

The  opening  chapters  of  the  book  deal  with  the  relative  advantages 
and  disadvantages  of  the  usual  sources — reservoirs,  lakes,  rivers,  and  ground 
water.  The  river  in  most  cases  in  the  United  States  is  the  only  source 
from  which  a  sufficient  quantity  is  available.  The  methods  and  devices  for 
purifying  water  and  the  operation  of  systems  under  filtration  form  the  main 
theme  of  the  book.  Throughout  the  volume  the  experiences  of  various 
American  cities   are   cited,   a   fact   which   adds   greatly  to   its  practical   value. 

One  chapter  in  particular,  on  the  use  and  measurement  of  water, 
could  be  read  with  great  profit  by  the  citizens  of  many  American  cities 
where  the  daily  consumption  per  capita,  with  no  meters,  is  excessive.  Mr. 
Hazen  contends  that  such  waste  of  water  is  needless,  increasing  the  cost 
of  supply  by  one-third  or  one-half.  Mr.  Hazen's  other  contention  is  that 
no  man  will  object  to  paying  for  a  supply  of  clean  water. 

The  book  is  a  valuable,  as  well  as  an  interesting  exposition  of  the  most 
important  question   in  present-day  municipal   problems. 

Holman,  Frederick  V.     Dr.  John  McLoughlin,  the  Father  of  Oregon.     Pp. 

301.  Price,  $2.50.  Cleveland :  the  Arthur  H.  Clark  Co.,  1907. 
This  volume  contains  a  biographical  sketch  of  the  "Father  of  Oregon,"  by 
which  name  Dr.  John  McLoughlin  is  known  throughout  the  Northwest, 
because  of  the  work  he  did  as  the  representative  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company 
in  the  Oregon  country.  It  comprises  the  history  of  the  Oregon  country 
until  the  establishment  of  the  Oregon  Territorial  Government  and  includes 


2/6  TJic  Aiuials  of  the  American  Academy 

a  statement  of  the  early  work  and  struggles  of  the  Presbyterian  and  Methodist 
missions  among  the  Indians. 

The  character  of  the  early  immigrants  is  pointed  out  as  is  also  the 
kindness  shown  them  by  Dr.  McLoughlin,  who  saved  them  from  starvation 
and  the  onslaught  of  the  Indians  and  aided  them  in  the  midst  of  their 
hardships. 

The  latter  part  of  the  work  deals  with  a  land  claim  of  which  Dr. 
McLoughlin  was  deprived,  and  sets  him  forth  as  being  greatly  persecuted. 
Documents  and  letters  form  an  appendix  to  support  this  claim  of  injustice. 
The  author  in  his  preface  does  not  claim  this  to  be  a  full  biography  of 
Dr  McLoughlin,  but  simply  an  enlargement  upon  an  oral  address  delivered 
on  McLoughlin  Day  during  the  Lewis  and  Clark  Exposition. 

Holt,  Henry.     On   the  Civic  Relations.     Pp.   xxxi,  668.     Price,   $1.75.     New 

York:  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  1907. 
This  is  a  reprint  in  enlarged  form  of  the  author's  "Talks  on  Civics."  Fortu- 
nately for  the  interest  of  the  work  it  has  been  rewritten  from  the  "question 
and  answer"  form  into  direct  exposition  which  relieves  it  of  the  choppy 
character  of  the  earlier  editions.  Further  changes  are  made  by  writing 
in  greater  detail  upon  such  divisions  of  the  subjects  treated  as  have,  through 
recent  developments,  come  to  be  of  greater  popular  interest.  These  ampli- 
fications are  especially  important  in  the  treatment  given  the  labor  question 
and  socialism  and  municipal  trading. 

First  designed  for  use  by  pupils  of  the  common  school,  this  work  has 
outgrown  its  original  purpose,  though  in  portions  a  certain  "juvenile" 
character  has  been  presented  both  in  manner  of  presentation  and  vocabu- 
lary. No  pretense  is  made  by  the  author  to  originality,  but  the  discussions 
are  presented  in  such  form  .that  they  make  an  interesting  and  valuable 
storehouse  of  general  information  on  civics  for  the  public,  to  which  the 
work  is  now  addressed— the  undergraduates  of  the  colleges  and  the  general 
reader. 
Hone,  Nathaniel  J.     The  Manor  and  Manorial  Records.     Pp.  xv,  357.     Price, 

$3.00.  New  York:  E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co..  1906. 
This  is  a  good  book.  It  belongs  to  the  series  known  as  "The  Antiquary's 
Books,"  although  the  American  imprint  does  not  state  that  fact-  It  will  be 
understood  then  that  it  is  not  primarily  a  work  of  investigation.  The  author, 
however,  uses  documents  freely  for  purposes  of  illustration,  and  his  book 
obtains  thereby  much  of  the  clearness  and  force  usually  accompanymg  work 
drawn  immediately  from  the  original  sources.  He  has  evidently  exammed 
many  manorial  records,  though  his  generalizations  are  not  drawn  from  them, 
but  from  the  books  of  other  men  about  them.  These  secondary  works  which 
he  has  utilized  are  in  the  main  the  best  books  on  the  subject.  For  the  early 
period  he  has  been  especially  dependent  on  Vinogradoff,  "Growth  of  the 
Manor,"  and  to  a  less  degree  on  the  same  author's  "Villainage  in  England." 
Altogether,  the  work  is  a  clear,  moderate,  sensible  and  readable  description 
of  the  main  characteristics  of  the  medieval  manor. 

It    is    noticeable    how    much    clearer    the    knowledge    of    the    mediaeval 


Book  Department  277 

manor  has  become  since  it  has  been  approached  from  an  economic  rather  than 
from  a  legal  point  of  view.  It  is  true  that  the  manor  is  in  some  senses  a  legal 
conception.  But  this  aspect  of  the  manor  is  vague,  artificial,  arbitrary,  com- 
prehensible only  by  lawyers,  and  in  their  minds  quite  detached  from  material 
reality.  Mr.  Hone  gives  such  a  definition  in  his  preface.  "A  certain  circuit 
of  ground  granted  by  the  king  to  some  baron  or  man  of  worth  as  an  inher- 
itance for  him  and  his  heirs,  with  the  exercise  of  such  jurisdiction  within 
the  said  compass  as  the  king  saw  fit  to  grant,  and  subject  to  the  performance 
of  such  services  and  yearly  rents  as  were  by  the  grant  required."  As  one 
studies  English  history  one  searches  in  vain  for  any  actual  process  such  as 
here  described,  and  as  one  reads  manorial  records,— extents,  compotus  rolls, 
and  court  rolls,  the  picture  that  rises  in  one's  mind  bears  no  resemblance 
whatever  to  the  lawyers'  definition. 

On  the  other  hand  the  conception  of  the  manor  as  primarilj^  an  agri- 
cultural organization,  the  demesne  farm  of  the  lord  of  the  manor  inter- 
mingled with  the  small  holdings  of  the  tenants,  the  whole  held  together 
by  agricultural  as  well  as  legal  and  social  bonds — a  little  community  carrying 
on  its  economic  as  well  as  its  legal  life,  under  the  control  of,  and  largely 
for  the  benefit  of,  the  lord  of  the  manor,  we  get  something  tangible,  which 
a  fuller  study  of  the  records,  manorial  and  national,  steadily  tends  to 
clear  up. 

The  material  for  such  fuller  study  is  shown  to  exist  in  great  abundance 
by  Mr.  Hone's  lists  of  court  rolls,  given  in  his  appendix.  This  is  a  most 
valuable  and  serious  contribution  to  the  subject.  The  main  body  of  court- 
rolls  in  the  Public  Record  Office  is  already  listed  in  the  Deputy  Keeper 
of  the  Rolls'  Series  of  Lists  and  Indexes,  No.  6.  In  addition  to  this,  how- 
ever, Mr.  Hone  has  printed  lists  of  the  court  rolls  existing  in  the  custody 
of  the  Ecclesiastical  Commissioners,  of  the  Land  Revenue  Ofiice,  of  the 
British  Museum,  Lambeth  Palace,  and  the  Bodleian  Library.  These  lists 
show  the  striking  extent  of  these  records. 

It  may  be  remarked  that  this  bibliography  discloses  one  of  Mr.  Hone's 
deficiencies,  his  relative  unfamiliarity  with  American  and  German  work  on 
his  subject.  He  makes  no  mention,  for  instance,  of  Ashley,  Page,  Gay, 
or  Cheyney;  Meitzen  or  Schmoller,  all  of  whom  have  contributed  directly  to 
his  subject  and  a  reading  of  whose  contributions  would  have  saved  him  from 
his  weak  or  mistaken  treatment  of  the  commutation  of  services,  of  the  en- 
closures of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  and  perhaps  of  some  of  the 
other  branches  of  his  study. 

Howe,  F.  C.      The   British   City.     Pp.   xvi,  370.     Price,   $1.50.      New   York: 

Chas.  Scribner's  Sons.     1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 

Hueffner,  Ford  Madox.    England   and    the    English.      Pp.    xxi,    354.      Price, 

$2.00.     New  York:  McClure,  Phillips  &  Co.,   1907. 
To  undertake  the  interpretation  of  the   spirit  which   characterizes   a  nation 
of  people  appears  at  first  glance  to  be  a  large  task,  yet  the  author  of  "England 
and  the  English"  has  struck  the   right  note  in  a  most   delightful   manner. 


278  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

The  book  covers  the  subject  in  three  general  parts,  the  first  devoted  to  the 
many  sides  of  life  in  London  and  what  the  real  London  and  Londoner  are; 
the  second  part  is  devoted  to  the  country  folk ;  and  the  third,  to  the  English 
spirit  in  general. 

The  most  striking  feature  of  the  volume  is  the  touch  of  "local  atmos- 
phere," giving  the  whole  an  air  of  reality  in  the  reader's  mind,  and  creating 
an  entirely  new  appreciation  of  the  forces  which  make  things  English  so 
distinctive.  Many  a  page  in  the  book  rambles  on  rather  aimlessly  or  with 
an  over  abundance  of  attention  to  minute  details. 

There  is,  however,  an  elusive  charm  about  the  book  which  seems  to  lie 
in  this  very  approach  to  unconscious  garrulousness.  It  suggests  "Cranford" 
with  its  gossipy,  ever  delightful  glimpses  into  the  life  of  that  provincial 
village.  It  is  a  book  for  many  hours  of  most  enjoyable  reading,  for  it 
gives  a  picture  of  England  and  the  English  to-day  in  the  same  way  that 
]\Irs.  Gaskill  portrayed  the  rural  life  of  a  single  provincial  village — an 
appreciation  of  his  country  and  countrymen  by  an  Englishman. 

Hulbert,  A.  B.      The  Ohio  River.     Pp.   xiv,  378.     Price.  $3.50.     New  York: 

G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons.     1906. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 

Hutchinson,  Alfred  L.     The  Limit  of  Wealth.     Pp.  279.     Price,  $1.25.     New 

York  :  The  IMacmillan  Company,  1907. 
The  book  contains  an  account,  dated  A.  D.  1944,  of  changes  brought  about 
in  the  industrial  system  of  the  United  States  as  the  result  of  a  suggestion 
made  in   1913  by  a  Wisconsin   school  master.     The  proposal   was   in  brief: 
"Limit  the  amount  of  wealth,"  which  each  man  may  accumulate. 

The  program  consists  of  an  income  tax  and  an  inheritance  tax,  amounting 
in  some  instances  to  confiscation, — based  on  ideas  that  have  been  advocated  for 
years  by  reformers  and  recently  by  President  Roosevelt.  This  scheme  was 
put  through  at  a  general  election  in  1912.  The  wealth  which  was  thus  con- 
fiscated to  the  government  was  used  for  three  purposes, — five  billion  dollars 
was  appropriated  for  roads ;  five  hundred  million  was  appropriated  for 
charity;  and  the  government  established  a  bureau  of  insurance.  At  the 
same  time,  the  post  office  passed  into  the  hands  of  a  company  which  cut 
the  cost  of  operation  in  half  and  reduced  the  expense  to  the  public  in  the 
same  proportion.  In  its  conception  the  book  is  childish.  The  author  writes 
like  a  man  who  knows  nothing  of  the  practical  workings  of  the  modern  gov- 
ernment. 
International  Arbitration.      Report   of   the   thirteenth   annual   meeting   of   the 

Lake  ISlohonk  Conference.     1907.     Pp.  209. 
Jordan,  D.   S.    The  College  and  the  Man.     Pp.  78.     Price,  80  cents.     Boston: 

American  Unitarian  Association.     1907. 
Jordan,  David  Starr.     The   Human   Harvest.     Pp.    122.     Price.   $1.00.     Bos- 
ton: American  Unitarian  Association.  1907. 
In  this  little  volume   President  Jordan,   of  Lcland    Stanford,   combines   two 
popular  lectures  which  deserve  attention  for  literary  style  and  form.     If  it 


Book  Department  279 

be  recalled  that  the  author  is  one  of  the  most  eminent  biologists  of  the 
country  his  subtitle,  "A  study  of  the  decay  of  races  through  the  survival 
of  the  unfit."  becomes  significant.  The  book  calls  attention  to  certain  factors 
in  human  life  which  may  easily  be  underestimated,  but  which  are  of  funda- 
mental importance.  The  "survival  of  the  unfit"  is  a  serious  menace  to 
civilization.     Can  it  be  stopped?     Professor  Jordan  thinks  so. 

Kirkup,  Thomas.    An  Inquiry  into  Socialism.     Pp.  216.     Price,  $1.75.     New 

York :  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1907. 
Students  of  socialism  will  welcome  the  re-appearence,  in  revised  and  enlarged 
form,  of  Kirkup's  standard  little  manual,  which  has  been  out  of  print 
since  1890.  It  is  an  unpretending,  sympathetic,  eminently  fair  exposition 
of  the  claims  of  a  reasonable  socialism,  a  statement  and  discussion  of  the 
objections  to  such  a  policy,  and  a  consideration  of  its  place  and  prospects 
in  the  democratic  society  of  the  twentieth  century.  Accordingly  it  will 
please  neither  the  hide-bound  individualist  who  learned  his  economics  in 
the  pre- Victorian  era,  nor  the  doctrinaire  socialist  who  believes  in  the 
plenary  inspiration  of  Karl  Marx ;  but  it  may  be  cordially  recommended  to 
everyone  who  wants  to  understand  present-day  socialism  of  the  less  extreme 
type.  While  the  author  makes  no  attempt  to  cover  the  same  ground  gone 
over  in  his  admirable  "History  of  Socialism,"  he  puts  the  socialistic  move- 
ment in  its  proper  perspective  by  an  introductory  account  of  the  rise  and 
the  character  of  capitalism.  Many  readers  will  doubtless  think  Kirkup 
unduly  favorable  to  socialism,  but  after  all,  we  have  passed  the  point  when 
it  seemed  worth  while  to  quarrel  over  names,  and  should  be  ready  to 
discuss  every  social  policy  on  its  merits.  Kirkup's  book  is  an  honest  and 
successful  attempt  to  discuss  socialistic  ideas  in  that  way. 

Kroeber,  A.  L.      The  Religion  of  the  Indians  of  California.     Pp.  2,/.     Price, 
50  cents.     Berkeley :   University  of  California  Press.     1907. 

Labriola,  Antonio.     Socialism  and  Philosophy.     Pp.  260.       Chicago:  Charles 

H.  Kerr  &  Company,  1907. 
The  book  consists  of  a  number  of  letters  written  by  the  author  to  a  friend. 
Its  style  is,  on  the  whole,  very  entertaining  and  makes  remarkably  easy 
reading,  when  contrasted  with  many  books  dealing  with  similar  topics. 
However,  there  is  not  sufficient  connection  between  the  various  letters  to 
permit  the  reader  to  feel  that  he  is  reading  a  book  but  rather  a  number  of 
short  dissertations  on  several  rather  diverse  topics.  Some  of  the  earlier 
letters  are  brilliant  in  conception,  and  the  statements  of  theory  are  remark- 
ably clear. 

The  first  letter  touches  a  vital  chord  in  its  description  of  the  ambition 
which  the  average  writer  on  socialism  entertains  of  getting  the  ego  before 
the  theory.  The  second  letter  is  an  attempt  to  show  the  importance  of 
having  the  work  of  Marx  and  Engels  clearly  understood  by  the  general 
public  and  particularly  by  students  of  socialism,  who  are  often  deceived 
by  misrepresentations  concerning  what  Marx  and  Engels  actually  did  say. 
Chapter  four  is  devoted  to  a  discussion  of  the  possibility  of  starting  a 
school   of  inaterialism   in   France.     Chapters   five,   six   and   seven   deal   in   a 


28o  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

very    general    and    indefinite   manner    \vith    the    relation    between    philosophy 
and  socialism. 

Either  the  title  of  the  book  is  unfortunate,  or  else  the  author  forgets 
the  subject  on  which  he  is  writing,  for  only  two  or  three  letters  fall 
naturally  under  such  a  title  as  "Socialism  and  Philosophy,"  and,  on  the 
whole,  the  book  will  not  place  the  theory  or  practical  workings  of  socialism 
in  a  more  favorable  light  before  the  public. 

Lafargue,  Paul.    The  Right  to   he  Lazy.     Pp.   164.    La  Monte,  Robert  R. 

Socialism   Positive   and   Negative.     Pp.    149.     Marx,    Karl.     Revolution 

and     Counter    Revolution.      Pp.    192.      Spargo,    John.      Capitalist     and 

Laborer.     Pp.  122.     Chicago :  Charles  H.  Kerr  &  Co.,  1907. 
Four   interesting   little   books    dealing   with    the   problems    of   socialism   and 
similar  questions. 

"The  Right  to  be  Lazy"  is  a  translation  by  Charles  H.  Kerr  of  a  most 
interesting  essay  presenting  the  opposition  to  the  ideas  ordinarily  advanced 
in  modern  Anglo-Saxon  communities  on  the  subject  of  work.  The  author 
speaks  of  work  as  a  thing  to  be  dreaded  rather  than  sought.  His  essay  is 
a  plea  for  the  modern  member  of  industrial  society  who  is  sold  to  work, 
and  in  his  mania  for  working  is  forgetting  to  live  and  enjoy.  The  essay 
carries  this  idea  to  an  extreme  not  often  seen,  and  yet  it  contains  a  germ 
of  truth  which  many  of  the  members  of  our  community,  particularly  in  our 
modern  city  would  do  well  to  note  and  heed.  The  essay  is  strong,  well 
written  and  interesting,  and  for  the  man  who  is  studying  modern  economic 
problems  well  worth  reading. 

The  chief  thing  in  "Capitalist  and  Laborer"  is  Mr.  Spargo's  answer 
to  an  attack  on  socialism.  Like  all  of  Mr.  Spargo's  work,  this  answer  is 
not  brilliant,  but  honest,  direct  and  dependable.  It  contains,  stated  in  a 
very  concise  form,  the  main  doctrines  of  the  modern  socialist. 

"Socialism  Positive  and  Negative,"  by  La  Monte,  is  a  book  of  discon- 
nected essays  dealing  with  "Science  and  Socialism-"  "Markism  and  Ethics," 
"The  Nihilism  of  Socialism,"  and  like  subjects.  There  is  no  connection 
between  the  essays  and,  on  the  whole,  they  do  not  present  as  satisfactory 
a  statement  of  the  socialistic  doctrines  as  does  ]\Ir.  Spargo's  book  noted 
above. 

"Revolution  and  Counter  Revolution"  contains  a  series  of  letters  written 
by  Karl  Marx  for  the  New  York  Tribune,  during  the  Revolution  of  1848 
in  Germany.  For  the  first  time,  these  articles  are  collected  and  printed 
in  book  form.  While  wholly  historical,  they  present  a  very  interesting  point 
of  view  on  the  German  crisis  in  the  middle  of  the  last  centur_v. 

This  series  of  books  represents  an  attempt  by  the  publisher  to  place 
in  handy  and  cheap  form  a  number  of  essays  dealing  with  socialism  and 
socialistic  problems.  The  effort  is  a  commendable  one  and  it  deserves 
public  support  because  of  the  reasonable  figures  at  which  the  material  is  pre- 
sented to  the  public  as  well  as  for  the  value  of  the  material  itself. 

Lee,  G.  W.     The  Library  and  the  Business  Man.     Pp.  64.     Boston:  Stone  & 
Webster.     1907. 


Book  Dcparlmciit  281 

Legislation  dii  Travail.  Annuairc  dc  la.  Pp.  690.  Price,  3  fr.  20  c.  Brus- 
sels :  J.  Lebegue  &  Cie.,  1907. 
This  annual  contains  the  labor  legislation  which  has  been  passed  in  the 
various  European  countries  and  their  colonies  and  in  the  United  States 
during  the  year  1906.  A  great  variety  of  subjects  are  treated:  factory  legis- 
lation, workingmen's  insurance,  regulation  of  minimum  wage,  investigation 
and  arbitration  of  strikes  and  lockouts.  On  examining  the  contents  of  the 
volume  one  is  impressed  with  the  part  which  the  administrative  power  plays 
in  such  regulations  in  Europe,  the  so-called  "legislation"  including  both 
laws  in  our  sense  and  ministerial  and  royal  decrees. 

The  availability  of  any  one  report  of  this  series  is  limited  by  the  fact 
that  many  of  the  acts  or  ordinances  are  amendatory,  and  hence  must  be 
construed  by  previous  acts  which  are  not  given.  But  the  value  of  the 
whole  is  enhanced  by  the  publication  of  a  decennial  table  which  classifies 
the  legislation  both  by  countries  and  by  subjects — the  latter  being  especially 
interesting. 

That  there  have  been  some  oversights  on  the  part  of  the  individuals 
making  the  reports  for  the  several  countries,  is  evidenced  by  the  omission 
of  two  Pennsylvania  statutes :  a  workshop  act  of  1899  and  a  store-order  act 
of  1901.  But  notwithstanding  such  omissions  the  Belgian  Office  du  Travail 
is  making  a  noteworthy  contribution  to  the  subject. 

Macrosty,  H.  W.     The  Trust  Movement  in  British  Industry.     Pp.  xxi,  398. 

Price,  $2.50.  New  York :  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1907. 
This  book  is  largely  devoted  to  a  statement  of  the  facts  regarding  combi- 
nations in  England.  Under  the  term  "Trusts"  are  grouped  all  of  the 
amalgamations  and  combinations  which  have  for  their  object  the  regulation 
of  prices.  The  volume  is  a  bit  disappointing  because  it  represents  nothing 
more  than  the  results  which  might  be  obtained  by  an  ordinary  legislative 
commission.  Facts  it  presents,  and  to  spare,  but  they  are  scarcely  digested, 
and  no  definite  conclusions  are  drawn  from  them. 

As  a  source  of  information  to  the  student  of  the  trust  movement 
abroad,  the  work  will  be  of  considerable  value,  but  such  work  can  be  equally 
well  done  by  more  cumbersome  bodies.  The  book  is  hard  to  read.  The 
paragraphs  are  long  and  tiresome.  The  style  is  clumsy.  We  need  thought — 
but  that  thought  must  be  transmitted  by  means  of  good  English. 

Meyer,  H.  R.      The  British  State   Telegraphs.     Pp.   xvii,  408.     Price,  $1.50. 

New  York:  Macmillan  Co.     1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 

Meyer,  H.  R.     Puhlie  Ozmership  and  the  Telephone  in  Great  Britain.     Pp. 

xviii,  386.     Price,  $1.50.     New  York:   Macmillan  Co.     1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 
Miyakawa,  Masuji.    The  Life  of  Japan,     Pp.  331.     Price,  $3.00.     New  York: 

Baker  &  Taylor  Co.,  1907. 
This  volume   is  a  description  of  the  life  of  the  people  of  Japan  from  the 
popular  standpoint  by  a  native  of  the  great  Island  Empire.     The  book   is 
written  in  an  interesting  style  throughout  and  tells  those  things  which  we 


282  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

most  want  to  know  about  Japan.  The  daily  life  of  the  people,  the  ideals 
and  standards  of  their  society,  the  historical  reasons  for  these  ideals,  the 
industrial  development  of  recent  years,  the  outlines  of  the  national  govern- 
ment, and  the  recent  discussions  of  a  possible  American-Japanese  war  are 
all  considered  in  an  informal,  semi-conversational  style,  which  lends  special 
attractiveness  to  the  book.  An  elaborate  series  of  tinted  illustrations  setting 
forth  the  different  phases  of  the  every-day  life  of  Japan  give  a  distinctive 
tone  to  each  page. 

Dr.  Miyakawa's  object  in  writing  the  book  is  clearly  one  of  which  all 
progressive  men  of  both  nationalities  must  approve,  that  of  bringing  the  two 
peoples  to  a  clear  understanding  of  each  other,  and  the  work  is  well  cal- 
culated to  fulfil  this  object. 

Morris,  C.    Home  Life  in  all  Lands.     Pp.  316.     Price,  $1.00.     Philadelphia: 

J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.     1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 

Munro,  D.  C,  and  Sellery,  G.  C.      Mcdicrval  Civilization.     Pp.  x,  594.     Price, 

$2.00.     New  York :  Century  Co.     1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 

Neame,  L.  E.     The  Asiatic  Danger  in  the  Colonics.     London :   S.  Roulledge 

&  Sons,  1907. 
The  keynote  of  this  volume'  might  be  given  as  "all  land  that  can  be  settled 
by  the  whiteman  should  be  kept  exclusively  for  his  use."  The  author  writes 
from  South  Africa  and  knows  from  experience  the  acuteness  of  the  race 
and  labor  problems  there.  The  discussion  extends,  however,  to  Australia 
and  the  West  Indies.  His  argument  is  based,  he  insists,  not  on  color,  but 
on  the  unassimilability  of  Asiatic  races  on  account  of  economic  standards 
of  life  with  which  the  European  cannot  compete,  and  social  standards 
with  which  he  cannot  sympathize-  South  Africa  and  Australia  must  be 
saved  as  a  ground  upon  which  the  white  race  may  expand.  The  West  Indies 
and  the  tropics  in  general  can  well  be  surrendered  to  the  Asiatics. 

Neiv    York    State    Library.     Yearbook    of    Legislation,     1906.     Price,    $1.00. 

Albany:   N.  Y.   State  Educational  Department.     1907. 
Osgood,  H.  L.    The  American  Colonics  in  the  Seventeenth  Century.    Vol.  III. 

Pp.   xxii,  551.     Price,  $3.00.     New  York:  Macmillan  Co.     1907. 
See  Book  Reviews. 
Parloa,  Maria.    Home  Economics.     Pp.  xii,  416.     Price,  $1.50.     New  York: 

Century  Company. 
There  is,  in  this  country,  a  steadily  increasing  interest  in  home  economics. 
Miss  Parloa's  book  on  this  subject  will  recommend  itself  to  all  progressive 
housekeepers  as  an  authoritative  hand  book.  Miss  Parloa  was  founder  of 
the  original  cooking-school  in  Boston  and  is  the  author  of  several  well- 
known  books.  "There  seems  to  be  a  need  for  a  book  that  deals  with  tlic 
necessities  of  daily  home  life,  that  teaches  the  housekeeper  the  materials 
and  forces  with  which  she  has  to  deal,  and  the  way  in  which  they  should  be 
treated.     This  book  has  been  planned  upon  this  basis.     Every  statement  has 


Book  Dcpartiiicitt  283 

been  thoroughly  tested  by  the  author  in  the  years  that  she  has  devoted  to  the 

study  and  experiments  which  have  made  this  vohime  possible." 

Patten,  S.  N.    The  Nczv  Basis  of  Civilisation.     Pp.  220.     Price,  $1.00.     New 

York  :  Macmillan  Co.     1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 
Peary,  R.  E.     Nearest  the  Pole.     Pp.    xx,  411.     Price,  $4.80.     New   York: 

Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.     1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 

Poorman,  C.  I.     The  Conflict  of  the  Ages.     Pp.  352.     Price,  $1.25.     Bellaire, 

Ohio:  Published  by  the  Author,  1907. 
In  all  ages  men  have  been  either  oppressors  or  oppressed,  whether  as  slave 
and  master,  or  serf  and  lord,  this  unnatural  condition  of  society  has  always 
been  overthrown  and  succeeded  by  some  other  system  which  likewise  con- 
tains oppressors  and  oppressed.  We  are  approaching  a  crisis  with  our  system 
of  wage  worker  and  wage  payer.  The  thought  is  emphasized  that  this  idea 
of  change  in  our  present  system  is  not  confined  to  "visionary  dreamers"  and 
"pessimistic  fault-finders." 

In  dealing  with  the  trusts  and  their  influence  upon  the  development  of  the 
country,  the  author  takes  a  very  pessimistic  view.  Fully  half  of  his  book 
is  devoted  to  this  subject,— and  many  interesting  facts  are  presented  regard- 
ing trust  oppression  and  trust  methods  which  "will  be  new  to  most  readers. 
Omitting  the  benefits  derived  from  large-scale  production,  the  author  deals 
only  with  the  wrongs  which  have  arisen  from  the  unjustified  use  of  the 
power  by  large  corporations 

The  book  concludes  with  statements  showing  how  the  reign  of  Christian 
socialism  can  be  brought  about  by  a  peaceful  revolution.     It  is  free  from  bit- 
terness or  prejudice,   strongly  written,  and  based  upon  a  group  of  new  and 
well-arranged  facts. 
Pratt,  E.  A.     German  7rrsiis  British  Raiki'ays.     Pp.  64.     Price  is.     London: 

P.   S.  King  &  Son.     1907. 
Pratt,  E.  A.     State  Raihvays.     Pp.    io7-     Price   is.     London:   P.   S.   King  & 

Son.     1907. 
de  Quesda,  G.     Arbitration  in  Latin   America.      Pp.    xiii,    136.     Rotterdam: 

M.  Wyt  &  Zonen.     1907. 
Richards,  R.  C.   Railroad  Accidents:  Their  Cause  and  Prevention.     Pp.  in. 

Boston:  The  Association  of  Railway  Claim  Agents,  1907. 
The  author  presents  in  a  very  interesting  way  the  question  of  railway 
accidents,  his  purpose  being  to  render  them  less  frequent  and  less  severe 
by  calling  the  attention  of  railroad  companies  and  railroad  employees  to 
their  really  serious  character  and  to  the  fact  that  in  a  great  proportion 
of  cases  they  are  easily  preventable  by  the  exercise  of  a  little  care.  The 
book  is  a  small  one,  somewhat  technical,  and  written  from  the  standpoint 
of  a  person  who  understands  railroading. 

It    divides    accidents    into    four    classes.     First,    those    unavoidable,    or 


284  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

those  caused  by  the  act  of  God,  or  the  pubhc  enemy;  secondly,  accidents 
to  passengers  and  other  outsiders  due  partly  to  their  own  negligence ;  thirdljs 
those  due  to  the  want  of  care  on  the  part  of  the  management,  and  fourthly, 
those  caused  by  the  carelessness  or  neglect  of  employees.  These  various 
groups  are  again  subdivided,  the  character  of  individual  accidents  pointed 
out,  and  remedies  suggested  in  each  case. 

The  author  livens  up  the  work  by  printing  a  large  number  of  actual 
instances  of  accidents  to  prove  his  theories-  His  general  conclusion  in 
regard  to  the  cause  of  accidents  is  not  at  all  specific,  and  the  remedies 
proposed  are  very  vague.  The  book  is  written  for  railroad  employees  rather 
than  the  general  public. 

Ross,  E.  A.     Sin  and  Society.     Pp.  xi,  167.     Price,  $1.00.     Boston :  Houghton, 

Mifflin  &  Co.     1907. 
See  Book  Reviews. 

Salamond,  J.  W.   Jurisprudeucc,  or  the  Theory  of  Late.     Pp.  xv,  518.     Lon- 
don :  Stevens  and  Haynes.     1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 

Schmoller,  G.    Jahrbuch  fur  Gesetzgebung,  Venvaltung  iind  Volkszvirischaft. 
Pp.  476.     Price,  iim.     Leipzig:  Duncker  &  Humblot.     1907. 

Schuster,  E.  J.    The  PrincipUs  of  German  Civil  Laze.     Pp.  xlvi,  684.     Price, 

I2s.  6d.     Oxford :   Clarendon   Press.     1907. 
See   Book  Reviews. 

Smith,  A.  H.      China  and  America    To-Day.      Pp.   256.     Price,  $1.25.     New 

York:  F.  H.  Revell  Co.     1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 

Smith,  S.  G.      The  Industrial  Conflict.     Pp.   217.     Price,  $1.00.     New  York: 

F.  H.  Revell  Co.     1907. 
See   Book  Reviews. 

Snyder,  C.    American  Raikvays  as  Investments.     Pp.  762.     Price,  $3.20.     New 

York  :  Moody  Corporation.     1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 

Snyder,  Carl.     The    World   Machine.        Pp.    xvi,    488.     Price,   $2.50.       New 

York :  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1907. 
The  Universe   is  a  machine   working  in   consequence  of  unchangeable  laws 
which    operate    none    the    less    surely   because    we    fail    to    understand    them. 
In  the  machine  the  earth  is  an  atom. 

The  author's  scheme  is  an  extensive  one.  He  proposes  to  create  a 
modern,  cosmic  philosophy  based  on  the  researches  of  modern  science- 
The  book  midcr  consideration,  "The  Cosmic  Mechanism,"  is  but  the  first 
of  three  volumes.  The  remaining  volumes  will  deal  with  "The  Mechanism 
of  Life"  and  "The  Social  Mechanism."  "In  a  larger  sense  we  may  now 
perceive  that  the  development  of  a  science  of  the  earth  and  sun  and  stars, 
like  human  development  in  general,  is  an  integral  part  of  that  vast  scheme 
of  evolution,  of  unfolding  and  becoming,  which  pervades  the  world." 


Book  Dcpartmcnf  285 

Within  the  past  few  years  considerable  attention  has  been  paid  to  the 
arguments  advanced  by  the  metaphysicists.  "There  is  no  matter."  "Matter 
is  an  iUusion."  To  the  author,  matter  is  the  foundation.  There  is  but 
one  cause  and  that  physical, — the  influence  of  past  development,  heredity, 
the  influence  of  our  present  surroundings,  environment.  "The  change  was 
slow,  the  path  obscure  and  difficult.  Probably  the  hardest  thing  the  human 
race  has  had  put  before  it  to  learn  was  the  idea  of  fixity  and  consequence; 
the  certitude  that  one  event  follows  inevitably  from  another — the  notion, 
as  we  say,  of  cause  and  effect ;  in  Hume's  phrase,  of  invariable  sequence ; 
what  we  have  come  in  latter  days  to  style  the  reign  of  law." 

The  first  volume  does  not  relate  to  man.  It  treats  only  of  the  devel- 
opment of  a  conception  of  the  Universe.  It  might  well  be  mistaken  for  a 
treatise  on  philosophy,  or  in  part  on  physics.  As  an  introduction  to  the 
study  of  the  social  mechanism,  which  is  baffling  so  many  thinkers,  it  is 
able  and  admirable.  The  style  is  clear, — the  construction  good.  The  work 
of  Kepler  and  Galileo  is  easily  made  difficult  for  thinkers  and  impossible 
for  common  men.  Of  that  there  is  no  question.  The  author  has  handled 
theories  with  marvelous  clearness  and  stated  the  evolution  of  our  world 
concepts  in  a  plain  lucid  manner. 

Sociological  Papers.     Vol.  III.     Pp.  vii,  382.     Price,  $3.25.     New  York:  The 

Macmillan  Co.,  1907. 
This  volume  includes  the  papers  read  before  the  Sociological  Society  (Lon- 
don) during  the  year  1906  and  the  discussions  thereof.  It  is  fully  up  to  the 
standard  of  the  first  two  volumes.  The  topics  embrace  a  wide  range  of 
subjects,  special  attention  being  given  to  eugenics  and  biological  factors. 
The  writers  and  their  subjects  are:  Dr.  G.  Archdall  Reid,  "The  Biological 
Foundation  of  Sociology;"  W.  McDougall,  "A  Practicable  Eugenic  Sugges- 
tion;" Dr.  J.  Lionel  Tayler,  "The  Study  of  Individuals  (Individuology)  and 
their  Natural  Groupings  (Sociologj')  ;"  Professor  J.  Arthur  Thompson, 
"The  Sociological  Appeal  to  Biology ;"  Professor  Patrick  Geddes,  "A  Sug- 
gested Plan  for  a  Civic  Museum  (or  Civic  Exhibition)  and  its  Associated 
Studies ;"  A.  E.  Crawley,  "The  Origin  and  Function  of  Religion ;"  Pro- 
fessor R.  M.  Wenley,  "Sociology  as  an  Academic  Subject;"  G.  de  Wessel- 
itsky,  "The  Russian  Revolution;"  W.  H.  Beveridge,  "The  Problem  of  the 
Unemployed;"  Mrs.  Sidney  Webb,  "Methods  of  Investigation;"  H.  G-  Wells, 
"The  So-Called  Science  of  Sociology." 

Speed,  T.    The  Union  Cause  in  Kentucky.     1860-1865.     Pp.  xxiii,  355.     Price, 

$2.50.     New  York:  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons.     1907. 
See  Book  Reviews. 

Steiner,  Bernard  C.    Maryland  during  the  English   Civil  Wars.       Part  II. 

Pp.  188.  Price,  50  cents.  Baltimore  :  Johns  Hopkins  Press,  1907. 
This  is  the  completion  of  Dr.  Steiner's  series  of  monographs  dealing  with 
the  early  narrative  history  of  Maryland,  a  study  based  primarily  upon  the 
recently  published  "Archives  of  Maryland."  The  present  number  includes 
an  account  of  events  from  1643  to  1649,  closing  with  a  description  of  the 
work  of  the  famous  assembly  of  "the  latter  year.     The  author  has  followed 


286  The  Aiiiials  of  the  A}}ierican  Academy 

in  detail  the  frequent  and  confusing  changes  of  government  during  this 
period,  the  Ingle  trouble  of  1644  and  the  resultant  "plundering  time"  of 
the  year  following,  and  the  constitutional  progress  made  during  the  admin- 
istrations of  Thomas  Greene  and  William   Stone. 

As  must  necessarily  be  the  case,  many  minor  matters,  interesting  in 
themselves  but  of  small  comparative  importance,  are  included  in  such  a 
series  of  studies.  It  is  the  function  of  the  author  of  monographs  to  bring 
together  all  the  known  details  of  his  subject,  leaving  to  the  author  of  more 
extended  treatments  the  choice  of  materials  from  the  monograph.  Professor 
Steiner  is  doing  excellent  work  in  the  former  of  these  two  fields  of  labor. 

Sumner,  W.  G.       Folkzcays.     Pp.    692.     Price,   $3.00.     Boston:    Ginn   &    Co. 

1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 

Terlinden,  Ch.    Guillaumc  Icr  Roi  dcs  Pays-Bas  ct  L'Eglise  CathoUque-en 

Bclgique    (1814-30).     Two  vols.     Pp.  xxi,  987.   Brussels:   Albert  Dewit, 

1906. 
This  is  a  scholarly  work  in  two  volumes  published  under  the  auspices  of 
the  department  of  Social  and  Political  Sciences  of  the  University  of  Louvain. 
The  first  volume  deals  with  the  period  from  1814  to  1826,  and  the  subsidiary 
title"  The  Conflict  Between  the  Church  and  State"  is  significant,  giving  the 
keynote  to  that  stormy  period  immediately  following  the  establishment  by  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  of  the  union  of  Belgium  and  Holland. 

The  author  writes  from  the  Catholic,  and  of  course,  the  Belgian  stand- 
point; he  frankly  states  that  he  sets  out  to  examine  the  history  of  the  king- 
dom of  the  Low  Countries  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  Catholic  religion. 
But  this  does  not  necessarily  make  his  work  unscientific;  much  of  the 
material  used  is  new,  being  drawn  directly  from  the  Vatican  and  other 
archives.  His  thesis  is  that  the  religious  question  was  one  of  the  leading, 
if  not  the  first  cause,  of  the  overthrow  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  United 
Netherlands,  and  hence  of  the  independence  of  Belgium.  After  treating 
the  difficulties  between  William  I  and  the  Holy  See,  the  work  shows 
how  the  conflict  resulted  in  the  unexpected  alliance  between  Liberals 
and  Catholics,  and  this  unnatural  alliance,  the  author  claims,  guaranteed 
the  success  of  the  Belgian  revolution.  Space  prevents  an  extended  review\ 
The  work  furnishes  an  excellent  treatment  of  this  phase  of  Dutch-Belgic 
relations  during  a  period  when  the  two  peoples  were  unwilling  mates  under 
the  same  yoke. 
Trevelyan,  G.  A.    The  American  Revolution.     Part  III.     Pp.  xii,  492.     Price, 

$2.50.     New  York :  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.     1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 
Watson,  W.  P.      The  Future  of  Japan      Pp.   xxxi,  389.     Price,  $3.50.     New 

York:     F..  P.  Button  &  Co.     1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 
Wendell,  B.     The  France  of   To-Day.     Pp.   379-     Price,  $1.50.     New   York: 

Chas.   Sribner's   Sons.     1907. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 


Book  Department  287 

Widney,  Joseph  P.    Race  Life  of  the  Aryan  Peoples.     Two  vols.     Pp.  xiv, 

706.  Price,  $2.00  each.  New  York :  Funk  &  Wagnalls,  1907. 
A  popular  account,  chronologically  arranged,  of  the  movements  and  devel- 
opments of  all  the  known  Aryan  peoples  beginning  with  the  old  Asian  home 
and  tracing  the  history  down  even  to  the  latest  occupied  habitats  of  the 
English-speaking  peoples.  There  is  practically  no  indication  that  there  are 
involved  serious  questions  of  fact,  on  which  students  are  by  no  means 
agreed,  save  in  the  discussion  of  the  original  seat  of  the  Aryans.  No  author- 
ities are  quoted  either  in  the  text,  footnotes  or  appendix.  The  author  fully 
believes  that  the  Aryan  is  the  superior  of  all  other  races  of  men;  that  of 
all  Aryans  the  English-speaking  groups  are,  and  will  be  the  leaders,  while 
the  Americans  are  to  be  in  the  van  in  the  centuries  to  come.  A  considerable 
part  of  the  second  volume  is  given  over  to  superficial  consideration  of 
American  problems  and  forecastings  of  future  developments,  such  as  the 
alliance  of  all  English-speaking  peoples  and  the  extinction  (or  migration)  of 
the  negroes.  The  style  of  the  volumes  is  bright,  the  narrative  interesting, 
the  facts  of  the  migrations  generally  accurate.  The  reader  will  enjoy 
the  book — the  student  will  wonder  where  the  author  gets  the  evidence  for 
his  conclusions  and  will  probably  smile  at  his  naive  philosophy. 
Wood,  W.  A.       Modern  Business  Corporations.      Pp.    xi.   358.     Price,   $2.50. 

Indianapolis :   Bobbs-Merrill   Co. 
Reserved  for  later  notice. 

Wright,  H.  N.     A  Handbook  of  the  Philippines.     Pp.  xvii,  431.     Price,  $1.40. 

Chicago:    A.  C.  McClurg  Co.     1907. 
Reserved   for  later  notice. 


Barker,  E.     The  Political   Thought   of  Plato   and   Aristotle.     Pp.    xxii,   559. 

Price,  $3.50.  New  York:  Putnam's  Sons,  Importers,  1906. 
A  proper  perspective  of  the  political  thought  of  the  greatest  two  of  the 
philosophers  of  Greece  demands  a  review  of  the  work  of  those  who  preceded 
them  as  well  as  that  of  their  contemporaries.  With  this  purpose  Mr. 
Barker  opens  his  book  with  a  very  clear  discussion  of  the  early  Greek  philos- 
ophers and  of  Socrates,  the  minor  Socratics  and  the  Sophists.  The  story 
as  told  is  at  once  so  simple  and  apparently  complete  that  the  reader  is  in 
doubt  whether  the  subject  matter  at  hand  justifies  so  consecutive  a  treat- 
ment. Into  the  story,  based  on  evidence,  the  author  has  woven  the  fruits 
of  modern  speculation  and  criticism  upon  his  subject  and  the  result  is  an 
attractive  presentation  of  something  which,  stripped  of  the  contributions  of 
secondary  writers,  must  always  remain  a  hazy,  fragmentary  record  of  de- 
velopment. In  a  sense,  therefore,  the  book  is  a  discussion  of  the  political 
thought  about  the  Greek  philosophers  as  well  as  a  presentation  of  the  theories 
actually  attributable  to  them.  With  this  qualification  it  is  just  to  say  that 
the  work  is  admirably  done. 


288  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

To  the  political  thought  of  Plato  the  author  devotes  three  chapters, 
to  that  of  Aristotle  seven.  The  comparisons  between  the  two  philosophers 
will  impress  some  readers  as  not  always  well  chosen.  Plato  is  considered 
above  all  a  practical  reformer,  his  writings  were  intended  as  projects  for 
actual  social  reform.  Aristotle  was  a  speculative  genius,  a  theorist  inter- 
ested rather  in  the  co-ordination  of  all  human  knowledge  than  in  the  people 
around  him.  And  again,  "Aristotle  wrote  the  'Politics,'  but  Plato  is  the 
great  political  thinker  of  Greece"  (p.  184). 

There  are  numerous  passages  to  which  many  political  scientists  would 
raise  objection  not  only  in  criticism  of  the  author's  interpretation  of  his 
subject,  but  in  some  cases  of  his  use  of  terms.  An  example  of  the  latter  is 
the  following:  "To  Aristotle  .  .  .  citizenship  means  direct  participation 
in  the  exercise  of  sovereignty.  It  does  not  mean  as  it  means  to-day,  the 
right  to  share  in  the  election  of  the  sovereign."  Is  it  true  that  citizenship, 
as  at  present  conceived,  means  ability  to  partake  in  the  choice  of  a  sovereign? 
jMost  political  scientists  would  surely,  if  forced  to  decide  between  the  two 
definitions  given,  vote  that  the  one  ascribed  to  Aristotle  is  more  in  line  with 
present  thought  than  the  one  given  by  the  author.  Instances  of  this  character 
could  be  easily  multiplied. 

But  as  a  whole  the  book  is  a  creditable  production  of  an  earnest  scholar. 
Its  style  is  excellent— it  is  much  more  readable  than  the  average  work 
dealing  with  political  theory.  Perhaps  the  best  summary  that  can  be  made 
of  the  volume  would  be:    It  is   a  good  book  on  theory  which  an  average 

man  can  read. 

Chester  Lloyd  Jones. 

University  of  P ennsylvania 


Cambridge  Modern  History.     Volume   X,  The   Restoration.     Pp.   xxix,  907. 

Price,  $4.00.  New  York:  The  Macmillan  Company,  1907. 
The  treatment  of  the  nineteenth  century  by  the  "Cambridge  Modern  History" 
very  naturally  gives  rise  to  new  difficulties  to  editors  and  authors  alike. 
Apart  altogether  from  the  difficulties  arising  from  the  nearness  of  the 
historian  to  the  events  he  is  treating  and  the  consequent  difficulties  of  obtain- 
ing a  proper  perspective,  there  is  the  problem  of  the  enormous  volume  of  the 
material,  which  is  in  the  main  unorganized,  and  which  has  not  yet  been 
subjected  to  critical  examination  by  the  trained  historian.  Under  these 
circumstances  the  monographic  plan  of  the  Cambridge  history  has  here  even 
greater  advantage  than  in  previous  periods.  In  a  new  field  of  history  the 
work  of  the  specialist  is  of  greatest  value,  and  it  is  therefore  with  particular 
expectation  that  students  have  awaited  the  volumes  of  this  great  historical 
work  on  the  last  century. 

That  the  volume  before  us  meets  our  expectations  as  fully  as  we  had 
hoped,  is  not  true.  There  are  excellent  monographs,  with  plenty  of  detail, 
often  'coupled  with  a  broad  grasp  of  the  subject,  and  a  power  of  interpre- 
tation that  is  very  illuminating.  Among  these  is  the  second  chapter^  by 
Professor  Bourgeois,  the  one  on  the  "Orleans  Monarchy,"  though  one  might 


Book  DcpartDioit  289 

quarrel  with  the  over-emphasis  of  ministerial  history  at  the  expense  of  a 
more  extended  treatment  of  the  tantalizingly  suggestive  allusions  to  great 
economic  and  social  changes.  We  are  told  of  the  practical  legislation  to 
aid  the  industrial  transformation,  of  the  laws  concerning  a  system  of  French 
railways,  education,  internal  communications,  the  army,  etc.,  but  not  a 
word  of  the  features  of  these  measures.  And  surely  these  are  of  equal 
importance  with  the  much  discussed,  but  very  doubtful  influence  of  Louis 
Philippe  in  laying  the  basis  of  his  rule.  "With  a  happier  inspiration  than 
that  of  the  Parliamentary  party,  who  would  have  compromised  everything  by 
premature  repression,  Louis-Philippe  had  himself  laid  the  foundation  of 
his  monarchy"  (p.  484).  But  if  Professor  Bourgeois  is  a  sinner  in  this 
respect,  others  are  so  to  a  much  greater  extent.  The  Congresses  and  the 
Eastern  question  are  treated  by  W.  Allison  Phillips,  whose  special  studies 
in  this  field  give  to  his  three  chapters  the  stamp  of  authority.  But  there  is 
too  much  made  of  negotiations  and  of  the  motives  of  individuals.  Is  it  not 
time  to  emancipate  the  history  of  the  nineteenth  century  from  this  undue  em- 
phasis of  diplomatic  relations?  The  very  excellent  chapter  by  Professor  Clap- 
ham,  of  the  University  of  Leeds,  on  "Economic  Changes"  is  no  excuse  for  the 
extremely  political  nature  of  the  treatment  of  so  many  of  the  other  chapters. 
Professor  Clapham's  contributions  will  be  of  especial  interest  to  readers  of 
The  Annals.  The  latter  half  of  the  chapter  affords  an  excellent  survey  of 
the  economic  changes  on  the  continent,  corresponding  to  the  industrial 
revolution  in  England.  Of  great  interest  and  even  more  timely  is  the 
work  of  F.  A.  Kirkpatrick,  M.  A.,  in  two  chapters  on  "Spanish  America," 
and  the  establishment  of  its  independence.  In  the  extended  bibliography 
on  these  topics  Professor  Bourne's  excellent  work  on  Spain  and  America 
and  Dr.  Paxon's  scholarly  book  on  the  Independence  of  the  Spanish-American 
Colonies,  are  conspicuous  by  their  absence.  Mr.  Bennian's  short  chapter  (ten 
pages)  on  Canada  would  be  of  greater  intere.st  if  it  were  not  so  much  abbre- 
viated. Of  foreigners  contributing,  there  are,  besides  Bourgeois,  already 
mentioned,  Professor  Segre,  of  the  University  of  Rome,  on  Italy;  Professor 
Altimira,  of  the  University  of  Oviedo,  on  Spain ;  and  Professor  Askenazy,  of 
the  University  of  Lemberg,  on  Russia  and  Poland. 

The  history  of  the  German  Federation  from  1815  to  1840,  is  well  done 
by  Professor  Pollard,  of  the  University  of  London,  but  there  are  curious 
omissions  in  the  bibliography.  For  example,  on  the  Zollverein  we  find  no 
mention  of  source  material,  not  even  for  the  text  of  the  law  and  the 
treatise.  This  is  the  more  conspicuous  because  of  the  report  made  by  Mr. 
Bowering  to  Parliament  in  1840,  giving  in  translation  nearly  all  the  important 
documents  on  the  question.  Mr.  Temperly,  Fellow  of  Peterhouse,  not 
"of  fellow  Peterhouse"  (p.  xx),  gives  what  seems  to  me  an  able  presen- 
tation of  a  well-known  period  of  English  history  from  1815  to  1833.  The 
first  half  of  the  treatment  reveals  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  foreign 
policy.  Mr.  Gooch,  of  Trinity  College,  continues  the  account  to  1841  in  a 
good  chapter  on  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The  chapters  on  the  literary 
movements,  one  on  "Literature  in  Germany,"  the  other  on  "The  Revolution 
in  English   Poetry  and  Fiction,"   are  novel   features   of  the   volume,  but   of 


290  Tlic  Annals  of  tJie  American  Academy 

greater  interest  to  the  readers  of  a  journal  of  politics  and  economics  is  the 
chapter  of  Professor  Nicholson,  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  on  "British 
Economists." 


William   E.  Lingelbach. 


University  of  Pcnnsyk'ania. 


Casson,  Herbert  V.      The   Romance   of   Steel.     Pp.    xiv,    376.     Price,    $3  50. 

New  York:  A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co.,  1907. 
The  character  of  this  book  is  best  told  in  the  words  of  the  author's  preface— 
"the  first  popular  history  of  our  greatest  American  industry."  "The  wonder- 
ful story  of  steel,"  continues  the  author,  "is  here  told  in  such  a  way  that 
those  who  have  no  technical  knowledge  of  steel  making  may  enjoy  and 
appreciate  the  miracles  that  have  been  accomplished."  Though  written  "after 
the  manner  of  fiction,  the  facts  have  been  gathered  from  the  highest 
authorities." 

The  rise  of  Carnegie,  Frick,  Phipps.  and  a  dozen  other  steel  magnates, 
the  story  of  the  Superior  ore  ranges  and  the  tales  of  Pueblo  and  Birmingham 
are  chapters  which  will  appeal  to  everyone  who  ever  saw  a  steel  rail  or  a 
blast  furnace. 

The  book  is  all  that  the  author  claims  for  it.  It  is  decidedly  readable, 
despite  an  occasional  complication  of  biographies.  The  title,  however,  may 
prove  misleading.  The  person  seeking  a  scholarly,  or  even  complete,  history 
of  the  iron  and  steel  industry  in  this  country  will  certainly  be  disappointed 
at  the  brief  mention  accorded  the  early  history  of  iron  making.  Less  than 
ten  pages  out  of  nearly  400  are  allotted  to  the  iron  industry  from 
1622  to  1847.  Briefer  biographies  of  some  of  the  "thousand  millionaires" 
could  have  made  way  very  profitably  for  a  more  thorough  historical  setting. 
A  millionaire  is  said  to  have  a  fascination  for  the  average  American  mind, 
but  at  times  Mr.  Casson's  eulogies  detract  from,  rather  than  add  to,  the 
value  of  the  book  from  the  standpoint  of  interest  in  steel  and  its  history. 

The  volume  is  essentially  a  history  and  eulogy  of  the  United  States 
Steel  Corporation,  or,  as  we  read  in  one  place,  "a  story  of  money  makers." 
Mr.  Casson  appears  to  have  nothing  but  commendation  for  this  gigantic 
industrial  combine  and  its  individual  members.  The  final  chapter  forecasts 
a  glowing  future  for  steel  in  every  field  of  activity,  as  glowing  as  could  be 
expected  from  the  most  optimistic  operator  himself.  The  book  is  to  be 
heartily  recommended  to  all  who  would  know  the  manner  in  which  America's 
greatest  industry  came  to  be  controlled  by  a  relatively  small  group  of  men.  The 
commercial,  industrial,  social,— in  fact  the  entire  body  of  the  economic 
relations  of  the  steel  business  are  barely  touched,  the  "money  makers"  and 
the   "thousand   millionaires"    evidently   having   proved   the   more   engrossing 

part  of  the  romance. 

Walter  Sheldon  Tower. 

University  of  Pennsylvania. 


Book  Department  291 

Doyle,  John   A.     English    Colonics    in    America.      Volume    IV,    The    Middle 

Colonies;   Volume  V,  The  Colonies  under  the   House  of  Hanover.     Pp. 

xxxii,  944.  Price,  $3.50.  New  York  :  Henry  Holt  &  Company,  1907. 
The  appearance  of  the  final  volumes  of  Mr.  Doyle's  history  of  the  English 
colonies  in  America  marks  the  completion  of  a  work  the  first  volume  of 
which  was  issued  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago.  The  author's  death,  following 
within  a  few  months  of  the  publication,  awakens  a  peculiar  interest  in  these 
volumes  and  naturally  suggests  a  brief  resume  of  his  work  on  American 
history.  Probably  no  Englishman  of  his  generation  has  evinced  greater 
interest  in  American  colonial  history  or  written  so  extensively  in  this  field. 
His  earliest  work,  the  Arnold  prize  essay  at  Oxford  dates  back  to  1869.  In 
addition  to  his  chief  work,  and  his  frequent  notes  and  reviews  of  books  on 
American  history  in  the  English  Historical  Reviezv,  his  most  notable  contribu- 
tion is  the  chapter  in  the  seventh  volume  of  the  "Cambridge  Modern  History" 
on  the  American  colonies.  It  would  appear,  however,  that  Mr.  Doyle  pursued 
historical  work  as  an  avocation,  a  mere  incident  of  his  life  as  a  gentleman 
farmer  and  sportsman. 

Of  his  earlier  volumes  in  this  series,  the  first  was  devoted  to  the 
Southern  colonies  from  their  settlement  to  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Queen 
Anne,  and  the  second  and  third  to  the  Nev^^  England  colonies  during  the  same 
period.  While  his  pages  were  frequently  marred  by  minor  errors,  in  general 
his  narrative  was  regarded  as  trustworthy  and  as  presenting  in  the  main 
a  true  picture  of  the  times. 

Finally,  after  an  interval  of  more  than  twenty  years,  a  period  so  long 
in  fact,  that  it  wr  s  supposed  by  many  that  Mr.  Doyle  had  permanently  abandoned 
his  task,  the  concluding  volumes  were  finished.  The  student  of  colonial 
history  will  be  curious  to  note  whether  the  new  volumes  reveal  a  more 
mature  scholarship  and  a  firmer  grasp  upon  his  subject. 

It  may  be  said  at  the  outset  that  Mr.  Doyle  has  followed  the  same 
general  plan  as  in  his  earlier  volumes.  In  Volume  IV  the  Middle  Colonies 
are  treated  up  to  1714,  in  conformity  with  his  history  of  the  Southern  and 
New  England  Colonies.  Six  chapters  of  this  volume,  or  about  two-thirds 
of  its  contents,  are  devoted  to  New  York,  two  to  New  Jersey  and  a  single 
inadequate  chapter  is  allotted  to  Pennsylvania.  The  final  volume  covers 
the  colonies  under  the  House  of  Hanover  from  1714  to  1760.  Here,  instead 
of  adhering  to  a  continuous  narrative  of  the  colonies  according  to  their 
geographical  grouping,  Mr.  Doyle  essays  to  consider  the  colonies  as  a  whole, 
treating  their  history  topically  in  chapters  dealing  with  special  subjects,  such 
as  the  general  condition  of  the  colonies  at  the  opening  of  the  period,  their 
administration,  their  economic  progress,  their  religious,  literary  and  educa- 
tional development.  The  volume  concludes  with  a  careful  account  of  the 
colonization  of  Georgia  and  a  summary  of  the  events  of  the  French  and 
Indian  War. 

While  Mr.  Doyle's  treatment  of  the  Middle  Colonies  is  fairly  systematic, 
it  follows  traditional  lines  and  is  not  based  in  all  cases  on  the  latest  author- 
ities. Its  proportion  is  open  to  criticism,  and  like  the  early  volumes,  the 
strict  adherence  to   a  geographical   classification   precludes   any  scientific  or 


292  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

thoroughgoing   comparison   and    study   of   colonial    institutions,   so   necessary 
to  an  understanding  of  later  American  constitutional  history. 

The  final  volume  is  the  least  satisfactory  of  the  set.  In  his  attempt 
to  treat  the  colonies  as  a  whole  the  author  fails  to  acquire  a  continental  grasp, 
and  contents  himself  with  a  topical  narrative  along  conventional  Imes  which 
at  best  is  very  incomplete.  One  especially  misses  any  systematic  account  of 
the  development  of  British  imperial  policy  and  the  administrative  control 
of  the  colonies.  To  illustrate,  there  is  no  adequate  discussion  of  the  navi- 
gation acts,  or  the  commercial  policy  of  Great  Britain.  The  functions 
and  manifold  activities  of  the  board  of  trade  are  not  presented.  The  in- 
creasing interference  of  Parliament  and  the  executive  department  of  the 
British  government  in  the  internal  affairs  of  the  colonies  is  not  sufficiently 
brought  out.  Narratives  of  the  conflicts  between  the  colonial  legislature  and 
the  royal  and  proprietary  governors  are  given,  but  there  is  no  clear  presenta- 
tion of  the  general  policy  of  the  imperial  government.  This  neglect  is  the 
more  surprising  and  disappointing  in  view  of  the  emphasis  which  has  been 
placed  upon  these  phases  of  colonial  history  by  recent  American  authors. 

It  is  apparent  that  these  obvious  omissions  are  due  in  part  to  Mr. 
Doyle's  adherence  to  the  older  view  of  the  scope  of  colonial  history.  His 
source  material  while  good,  has  been  inadequate.  He  has  relied  upon  the 
older  standard  histories,  such  as  Broadhead's  New  York  and  Proud's  Penn- 
sylvania, together  with  the  published  records  of  the  several  colonies,  and 
to  a  limited  extent  upon  the  printed  volumes  of  the  Calendar  of  State 
Papers,  but  only  in  rare  instances  has  he  consulted  manuscript  archives. 

In  addition  to  other  shortcomings  the  author's  work  is  marred  by  a 
decided  inaccuracy  of  detail.  There  are  also  many  instances  of  carelessness 
and  lack  of  consistency  in  the  citation  of  references  in  the  footnotes.  A 
few  examples  of  some  of  the  most  conspicuous  of  these  errors  must  suffice. 
American  geography,  so  troublesome  to  English  writers  in  general,  has  proved 
to  be  none  the  less  so  in  this  case.  Thus  we  are  informed  that  the  Piscat- 
aqua  separates  New  Hampshire  from  Massachusetts ;  that  Onondaga  county 
is  the  district  which  is  now  Vermont,  that  the  New  York-Connecticut  boun- 
dary line  lies  twenty  miles  north  of  the  Hudson,  that  Flatbush  is  at  the 
southeast  end  of  Long  Island,  that  Elizabethtown  is  located  on  the  Dela- 
ware. New  Netherland  is  invariably  spelled  New  Netherlands.  The  celebrated 
Philadelphia  lawyer,  Andrew  Hamilton,  is  referred  to  as  Alexander  Hamil- 
ton ;  and  Jonathan  Belcher  is  incorrectly  named  Andrew.  To  the  colony 
of  New  York  is  erroneously  given  the  credit  of  having  first  asserted  the 
right  of  self-taxation.  The  Pennsylvania  Charter  of  Privileges  of  1701,  we 
are  told,  made  no  modification  of  any  constitutional  importance,  although 
in  fact  it  changed  the  whole  status  and  character  of  the  council  in  its  rela- 
tion to  the  assembly. 

With  all  their  shortcomings  these  volumes  possess  many  redeeming 
qualities.  They  contain  a  readable  narrative  of  facts,  impartially  presented 
and  frequently  enriched  by  well  considered  judgments  and  reflections.  Mr. 
Doyle  has  been  happy  in  his  characterization  of  men,  as  instanced  in  his 
realistic  pen  portrait  of  Stuyvesant  and  his   sympathetic  estimate  of   Penn. 


Book  Dcpariment  293 

Viewed  as  a  whole  these  volumes  present  an  essentially  truthful,  although 
not  a  complete,  account  of  the  internal  development  of  the  colonies.  Their 
chief  deficiency  is  in  their  failure  to  adequately  present  their  history  in  rela- 
tion to  the  rest  of  the  empire.  The  final  judgments  of  Mr.  Doyle's  history, 
we  believe,  will  pronounce  it  a  highly  useful  but  not  a  scientific  and  indis- 
pensable work. 

Herman  V.  Ames. 

University  of  Pennsylvania. 


McBain,  H.  L.    DelVitt  Clinton  and  the  Origin  of  the  Spoils  System  in  Neiv 

York.  Pp.  161.  Price,  $1.50.  New  York:  Macmillan  Company,  1907. 
The  name  of  DeWitt  Clinton  is  usually  connected  with  all  that  is  debasing 
and  corrupt  in  the  distribution  of  patronage  in  New  York.  With  his  advent 
to  power  in  the  politics  of  his  state  by  the  turn  of  fortune  in  1801,  he  is 
charged  with  cleaning  all  the  offices  of  federalists  to  make  way  for  repub- 
licans, that  for  his  own  self-interest  the  adherents  of  rivals  within  his  own 
party  were  excluded,  and  that  he  was  guilty  of  nepotism.  From  such  im- 
putations it  is  the  express  purpose  of  this  paper  to  clear  the  name  of 
DeWitt  Clinton.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  at  least  half  a  dozen  scholars  and 
historians  of  eminence  and  ability  have  uttered  these  charges  without  any 
regard  to  the  story  the  source  material  might  tell.  And  this  source  material 
has  not  been  inaccessible. 

This  monograph  is  based  on  the  manuscript  files  and  minutes  of  the 
council  of  appointment  in  whose  hands  lay  the  patronage  of  New  York, 
also  on  the  public  papers  of  both  George  and  DeWitt  Clinton,  on  the  legis- 
lative journals  with  a  judicious  use  of  contemporary  newspapers  and  pam- 
phlets. To  show  what  precedent  there  was  and  to  what  extent  DeWitt 
Clinton  departed  from  precedent,  an  account  is  given  not  only  of  the  history 
of  civil  service  in  the  state  prior  to  iSoi,  but  also  in  the  national  government. 
The  writer  clearly  shows  by  adequate  evidence  that  in  both  state  and 
nation  "every  feature  of  DeWitt  Clinton's  plan  of  parceling  out  the  patron- 
age of  the  state  found  some  authority  in  the  practice  which  had  preceded  him" 
(p.  13).  In  New  York  State  the  federalist  council  of  appointment  under  Gov- 
ernor George  Clinton  practiced  a  policy  of  exclusion  toward  opponents  and  a 
similar  policy  was  adopted  when  the  federalists  rose  to  power  under  Jay 
in  1795.  In  1801  the  republicans  were  victorious  in  both  state  and  national 
elections  only  to  find  all  the  offices  in  the  hands  of  their  political  opponents. 
It  was  inevitable  that  with  a  change  of  party  should  come  a  change  in 
office  holding.  DeWitt  Clinton  practiced  no  new  system  in  using  the  patron- 
age for  party  ends.     It  had  been  an  inveterate  practice  of  English  politics. 

Further,  the  evidence  plainly  shows  that  DeWitt  Clinton  did  not  exclude 
all  political  'opponents.  His  policy  was  to  grant  the  larger  offices  to  repub- 
licans, and  to  divide  the  smaller  between  the  parties  in  proportion  to  their 
respective  numbers,  and  this  plan  was  put  into  practice.  Neither  did  he 
exclude  the  adherents  of  Burr,  but  places  were  found  for  some  of  this 
rival's  closest  adherents.     On  the  charge  of  nepotism  it  is  curious  to  note 


294  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

the  writer  shows  that  in  every  case  where  his  relations  held  office,  it  was 
by  election  and  not  by  appointment.  Besides  setting  the  fame  of  DeWitt 
Clinton  in  a  new  light,  the  monograph  is  also  valuable  as  giving  a  splendid 
account  of  the  early  development  of  civil  service  in  both  national  and  state 
government.  In  point  of  style  and  lucidity  the  writer  is  to  be  commended.  It 
is  readable,  a  quality  which  cannot  always  be  predicated  of  a  doctoral  disser- 
tation. 

Win  FRED    Trexler    Root. 
University  of  Pennsylvania. 


Osgood,  H.  L.      The  American  Colonics  in   the  Seventeenth   Century.     Vol. 

III.  Pp.  xxii,  551.  Price,  $3.00.  New  York:  The  Macmillan  Co.,  1907. 
In  the  first  two  volumes,  which  appeared  several  years  ago,  Professor 
Osgood  related  the  story  of  the  plantation  of  the  colonies  and  of  their 
development  to  a  period  near  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He 
took  particular  pains  to  distinguish  between  the  corporate  and  proprietary 
form  of  colony,  making  the  distinction  clearer,  perhaps,  than  any  previous 
writer  had  done.  The  sub-title  of  the  present  volume,  "Imperial  Control," 
indicates  that  the  point  of  view  now  shifts  to  the  other  side  of  the  sea. 

The  first  chapter  is  devoted  to  the  organs  of  imperial  control.  In  point 
of  law  there  was  no  distinction  between  the  realm  and  the  dominions,  but 
the  differences  in  fact  were  very  great.  Newly  discovered  lands  vested  in 
the  crown,  hence  the  regulation  of  colonies  seemed  to  be  a  matter  of  pre- 
rogative. On  the  other  hand.  Parliament,  being  jealous  of  the  prerogative, 
was  some  times  disposed  to  take  a  part,  but  did  not  in  fact  pass  more  than 
half  a  dozen  laws  for  the  colonies  during  this  period,  and  these  related 
to  trade.  The  colonists,  acknowledging  submission  to  the  mother  country, 
were  between  two  fires.  If  they  denied  the  prerogative  of  the  crown,  they 
were  in  danger  of  falling  under  the  dominion  of  Parliament. 

The  development  of  the  imperial  system  was  somewhat  slow  and  irreg- 
ular. For  this  there  were  two  reasons,  the  remoteness  of  the  colonies,  and 
the  irregular  method  of  their  plantation;  and  the  disturbances  in  English 
politics.  But,  throughout  it  all  the  influence  of  the  mercantile  idea,  that 
colonies  must  subserve  the  material  interests  of  the  mother  country,  is 
unmistakable.  Gradually  the  policy  of  bringing  the  colonies  under  one 
system,  that  of  the  royal  province,  and  of  unifying  the  control,  began  to 
develop.  This  was  not,  as  some  historians  have  maintained,  merely  a 
part  of  the  Stuart  policy  to  rule  arbitrarily  so  much  as  a  matter  of  con- 
venience in  enforcing  the  trade  regulations  at  the  entreaty  of  the  Lon- 
don merchants.  The  trade  acts  were  not  altogether  inimical  to  the  col- 
onies, but  on  the  whole,  they  would  have  been  detrimental  if  rigidly  enforced. 
The  crucial  test  came  in  the  attempt  to  consolidate  New  York  and  New 
England  and  enforce  the  acts  there.  But  the  Stuart  throne  was  already 
tottering,  and  with  its  fall  the  imperial  system  for  the  colonies  practically 
collapsed  for  the  time  being. 

Nearly   all   historians    state    that   the    trade   acts    were   not    designed    to 


Book  Dcpariiiicnt  295 

raise  a  revenue,  yet  they  fail  to  state  into  what  excliequer  the  incidental 
revenue  was  to  flow.  It  is  gratifying  to  note  that  Professor  Osgood  has 
brought  this  out  in  the  course  of  the  narrative.  The  reader  will  find  many 
other  details  also,  some  of  which  are  less  interesting,  but,  on  the  whole,  this 
and  the  two  preceding  volumes  make  a  really  notable  contribution  to  our 
colonial  history. 

David  Y.  Thomas. 

University  of  Arkansas. 


Ross,  Edward  Alsworth.  Sin  and  Society.  Pp.  xi,  167.  Price,  $1.00.  Bos- 
ton: Houghton,  MiiBin  &  Co.,  1907. 
In  gathering  together  the  brilliant  essays  that  he  has  been  contributing 
to  the  Atlantic  Monthly,  Professor  Ross  gives  us  one  of  those  rare  books  that 
are  really  worth  while.  "New  Varieties  of  Sin,"  "The  Criminaloid,"  "Sin- 
ning by  Syndicate" — no  one  who  enjoys  clear  thinking  and  vigorous  writing 
can  afford  to  miss  these  stimulating  chapters.  "The  founder  of  the  Oil  Trust 
may  give  us  back  our  money,  but  not  if  he  send  among  us  a  hundred 
Wesleys  can  he  give  us  back  the  lost  ideals."  Thus  does  the  author  epitomize 
the  moral  havoc  wrought  by  the  gospel  of  success  as  preached  in  Big  Busi- 
ness. Everyone  admits  the  wickedness  of  the  old  personal  sins,— lying,  cheat- 
ing, stealing,  killing  by  violence ;  but  public  indignation  is  not  yet  sufficiently 
kindled  against  the  franchise  grabber,  the  food  adulteror  the  exploiter  of 
women  and  children,  the  neglectful  railroad  red  with  the  blood  of  employees  and 
passengers.  Their  guilt  is  impersonal,  yet  it  shakes  the  very  foundations 
of  social  order;  and  as  Professor  Ross  protests  vigorously,  it  is  against 
such  sins  and  not  simply  against  personal  vices  that  the  thunderbolts  of 
public  wrath  need  to  be  directed.  We  could  wish  that  he  had  laid  more 
emphasis  on  publicity  of  great  business  affairs  as  a  means  of  making  public 
opinion  effective;  but  one  ought  not  to  find  fault  with  so  good  a  book. 
It  well  deserves  the  wide  influence  invoked  for  it  in  the  interesting  prefatory 
letter   of   President   Roosevelt. 

H.    R.    MussEY. 

University  of  Pennsylvania. 

Schuster,  E.  J.    The  Principles  of  German  Civil  Law.     Pp.  xlvi,  684.     Price, 

12s.  6d.  Oxford:  The  Clarendon  Press,  1907. 
This  is  an  important  contribution  to  the  literature  of  comparative  legislation. 
Mr.  Schuster  has  compressed  within  less  than  seven  hundred  pages  a  clear 
discussion  of  the  latest  and  greatest  attempt  made  by  any  nation  to  codify 
the  entire  body  of  substantive  law,  and  has  combined  with  this  discussion 
a  comparison  with  the  English  common  law  wherever  the  contrast  or  simi- 
larities were  so  striking  as  to  make  such  a  course  of  particular  value.  The 
book  is  so  arranged  that  besides  rendering  this  service  to  the  student  of 
comparative  law  it  is  also  available  for  use  in  that  numerous  class  of 
cases  arising  out  of  the  rapid  expansion  of  international  relations  as  they 


296  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

affect  the  individual.  The  contrast  of  continental  and  English  law  is 
brought  out  in  such  a  way  that  misunderstandings  can  be  made  less  fre- 
quent and  cases  of  the  conflict  of  laws  can  be  more  easily  adjusted.  These 
comparisons  are  carried  through  the  whole  field  of  law,  bringing  out  the 
differences  of  practice — to  illustrate  with  examples — upon  the  validity  of 
marriages,  the  effect  of  marriage  on  property,  the  rules  as  to  settlements 
and  trusts,  the  nature  and  effect  of  wills,  etc. 

Mr.  Schuster  is  to  be  congratulated  upon  the  care  taken  in  the  nomen- 
clature used.  Evidently  no  pains  have  been  spared  to  get  exact  translations 
of  the  terminology  of  the  codes,  and  where  no  English  equivalent  is  avail- 
able the  distinction  between  the  similar  English  word  used  and  the  German 
word  is  always  carefully  brought  out.  This  has  been  by  no  means  an 
easy  task,  for  the  language  of  the  codes  is  so  highly  technical  that  exact 
translation  is  often  all  but  impossible. 

A  short  historical  sketch  preceding  the  main  discussion  gives  an  idea 
of  the  chaotic  condition  of  German  state  law,  which  was  superseded  by  the 
imperial  legislation  culminating  in  the  adoption  of  the  code  in  1900.  Ger- 
man private  law  now  consists  chiefly  of  the  civil  code  and  the  com- 
mercial code,  both  of  which  overlap  so  that  both  must  be  consulted  to  find 
the  law  on  any  subject.  In  turn  they  are  rounded  out  by  numerous  addi- 
tional statutory  supplements.  The  ground  work  of  the  codes  is  the  Roman 
law  with  additions  from  the  "common  law"  developed  in  Germany,  and  other 
provisions  of  entirely  modern  character.  So  far  as  possible  the  language 
used  is  simple,  though  the  intent  has  not  ruled  the  outcome  as  much  as  was 
hoped.  The  methods  of  expression  and  interpretations  adopted,  it  is  claimed, 
admit  of  adaptation  to  new  conditions,  thus  obviating  the  stock  objection 
to  a  code  as  a  body  of  "dead  law."  But  no  doubt  this  wide  margin,  now  left 
to  judicial  discretion,  will  gradually  disappear  and  the  decisions  will  build 
up  a  new  customary  law.  This,  however,  should  not  blind  us  to  the  fact 
that  though  not  a  work  of  permanence,  codification  works  for  the  definition 
of  principles  as  opposed  to  the  casuistic  irregularity  so  often  fostered  by  the 
absence  of  any  co-ordinated  body  of  law. 

Chester    Lloyd   Jones. 
University  of  Pcnnsylvaniu. 


Small,  Albion  W.     Adam  Smith  and  Modern  Sociology.     Pp.  ix,  247.     Price, 
$1.25.       Chicago:  The  University  of  Chicago  Press,  1907. 

Tliis  book  is  a  fragment  of  a  more  complete  study  of  the  relations  between 
nineteenth  century  social  sciences  and  sociology,  according  to  a  statement 
in  the  preface.  This  first  volume  undertakes  to  prove  the  following  thesis: 
"Political  economy,  as  viewed  by  Adam  Smith,  was  the  technology  of  a 
practical  art  which  was  strictly  responsible  to  a  moral  philosophy  that  corre- 
lated all  human  activities.  Political  economy,  after  Adam  Smith,  lost  its 
sense  of  connection  with  the  large  moral  process,  and  became  the  mystery 
of  the  craft  of  the  capitalizer.  We  propose  an  inspection  of  Adam  Smith's 
economic  system,  for  the  purpose  of  showing  that  in  his  mind  there  was  no 


Book  Department  297 

antithesis,  still  less  a  divorce,  between  economic  technology  and  sociology; 
and  that  the  organization  of  the  two  in  his  philosophy  rested  upon  a  general 
conception  of  the  subordinate  relationship  of  all  specific  activities  within  an 
inclusive  moral  system,  to  which,  in  effect,  though  not  in  detail,  all  students 
of  society  must  ultimately  return." 

Probably  most  careful  students  of  Adam  Smith,  taking  account  of  the 
"Theory  of  Moral  Sentiments"  as  well  as  the  "Wealth  of  Nations,"  will 
admit  that  the  great  apostle  of  individual  liberty  was  first  a  moral  philoso- 
pher, and  only  secondarily  an  economist.  This  idea  Professor  Small  de- 
velops in  his  own  peculiar  terminology,  making  abundant  citations  from  the 
"Wealth  of  Nations."  Adam  Smith's  social,  or  as  our  author  prefers  to 
call  it,  sociological  point  of  view,  is  contrasted  with  that  of  the  classical 
economists,  who  were  so  intent  on  increasing  production  as  to  forget  that 
more  wealth  is  worth  while  only  as  it  means  increased  welfare,  and  that 
welfare  depends  quite  as  much  on  just  distribution  as  on  increased  pro- 
duction. 

The  most  interesting  chapter  in  the  book  is  that  on  "The  Economics 
and  Sociology  of  Labor,"  which  contains  a  suggestive  criticism  of  Adam 
Smith's  use  of  the  slippery  word  "natural,"  and  our  use  of  the  equally 
elusive  "normal."  To  assume  that  competition  or  the  private  ownership 
of  land  and  machines,  or  any  particular  feature  of  the  present  system  of 
distribution,  is  "normal,"  is  to  incur  the  danger  of  the  question-begging 
epithet,  no  matter  how  carefully  one  may  define  his  terms.  Professor  Small 
maintains  that  there  is  a  fundamental  difference  between  claims  to  material 
goods  based  on  labor,  and  claims  based  on  conventionality,  the  former  being 
essential,  the  latter  only  institutional.  We  are  unable  to  agree  that  labor 
itself  constitutes  a  valid  claim  to  income,  as  the  argument  of  the  book 
seems  to  indicate.  Income  from  labor,  no  less  than  that  from  property, 
must  justify  itself  on  the  ground  of  social  utility. 

To  return  to  the  argument  of  the  book,  economics  is  a  purely  tech- 
nological discipline,  judging  conduct  solely  with  reference  to  its  effects 
on  wealth.  It  furnishes  an  indispensable  part  of  the  data  for  that  larger 
moral  judgment  which  it  is  the  special  province  of  the  sociologist  to 
make,  and  which  has  for  its  criterion  social  welfare  or  progress.  The 
claim  advanced  for  sociology  is  not  a  particularly  new  one,  but  it  is  pre- 
sented in  a  rather  striking  fashion.  If  one  may  judge  at  all  by  the  recent 
literature  of  economics,  however,  the  economists  have  no  idea  of  letting 
themselves  be  shut  up  within  the  narrow  bounds  here  laid  down.  Dispute 
as  we  may  over  names,  the  cheering  fact  remains  that  we  are  all  beginning 
to  study  the  social  sciences  from  the  viewpoint  of  human  welfare. 

H.  R.  MussEV. 
University  of  Pennsylvania. 


Smith,  Samuel  G.     The   Industrial  ConHict.     Pp.   217.     Price,   $1.00.       New 

York :  Fleming  H.  Revell  Company,  1907. 
This  study,  by  a  member  of  the  department  of  sociology  in  the  University 
of  Minnesota,  is  said  by  its  author  to  differ  "from  all  that  has  been  written 


298  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

upon  the  question,  in  that  it  is  not  based  upon  a  theoretic,  but  a  real  world, 
and,  instead  of  seeking  to  serve  some  theorj-,  endeavors  to  show  the  actual 
grounds  upon  which  the  whole  subject  rests,  and,  rejecting  both  matters 
of  method  and  incidental  questions,  to  set  in  a  clear  light  the  issues  involved" 
(p.  8).  Two  chapters  consist  of  reprints  of  letters  received  from  labor 
leaders  and  employers.  In  the  discussion  of  these  letters,  the  author  em- 
phasizes many  of  the  elementary  truths  of  political  economy  in  a  readable 
manner,  and  even  for  those  who  have  some  acquaintance  with  the  litera- 
ture of  the  labor  question,  it  may  be  convenient  to  have  the  demands  of 
emploj'ers  and  employed  brought  together  in  one  place.  In  the  chapter  on 
the  "Three  Parties  in  Interest"  it  would  have  been  well  to  analyze  the 
concept  of  "the  public,"  viewed  as  a  distinct  group  from  employers  and 
employed.  In  the  final  chapter  socialism  is  judged  adversely.  Dr.  Smith 
asserts  that  under  socialism  the  management  of  industry  would  be  either 
by  a  caste  system  the  w-orst  the  world  has  ever  known  or  else  by  the  general 
average  of  intelligence,  which  would  check  production.  There  would  be 
no  incentive  to  the  individual  to  put  forth  all  his  powers.  Finally  he  rejects 
socialism  because  it  is  an  assault  on  the  family  and  is  anti-patriotic.  The 
attempted  distinction  between  political  and  economic  socialism  is  not  clear. 

M.    O.    LORENZ. 

University  of  Wisconsin. 


Speed,  Thomas.     The    Union   Cause    in   Kentucky.     1860-1S65.     Pp.    xv,   355. 

Price,  $2.50.  New  York :  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  1907. 
No  part  of  the  history  of  the  Civil  War  is  more  deserving  of  investigation 
than  that  played  by  the  border  states.  Up  to  the  present  time,  however, 
the  internal  history  of  these  states  has  been  inadequately  presented,  especially 
the  part  played  by  the  Union  men  in  keeping  these  states  from  joining 
the  Southern  Confederacy. 

It  is  with  these  convictions  that  Captain  Speed  has  prepared  the  present 
volume.  While  much  has  been  written  to  celebrate  the  deeds  of  those 
Kentuckians  who  went  into  the  Confederacy  he  believes  that  the  services 
of  the  Kentucky  Unionists  have  been  underestimated  and  misrepresented. 
The  truthfulness  and  fairness  of  the  author's  account  is  testified  to  by  Justice 
John  M.  Harlan,  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  in  an  appreciative 
introduction.  Both  Justice  Harlan  and  the  author  call  attention  to  the 
fact  that  even  as  able  and  unprejudiced  a  writer  as  the  late  Professor  Shaler, 
of  Harvard,  in  his  history  of  his  native  state  has  gravely  erred  and  given 
currency  to  a  gross  misconception,  when  he  wrote  that  "the  Blue  Grass 
region  sent  the  greater  part  of  its  men  of  the  richer  families  into  the 
Confederate  army,  while  the  Union  troops,  .  .  .  came  in  greater  abun- 
dance from  those  who  dwelt  on  thinner  soils,"  and  that  the  former  were 
as  a  whole,  "a  finer  body  of  men  than  the  Federal  troops  from  the  common- 
wealth." Captain  Speed  refutes  this  statement  in  Chapters  VI  and  XI  by 
marshaling  a  long  list  of  Union  leaders  from  prominent  families  and  by 
a   comparison   of   the    records   of   the   Union   and    Confederate   troops   from 


Book  Dcparhiiciit  200 

Kentucky.  The  author  claims  to  have  drawn  his  facts  from  documentary 
sources,  and  an  examination  of  his  references  seems  to  confirm  his  state- 
ment. In  some  respects,  however,  the  work  does  not  meet  the  expectation 
aroused  by  the  preface.  Instead  of  being  a  well-balanced  continuous  history, 
it  consists  of  a  series  of  chapters  of  a  more  or  less  fragmentary  character, 
and  some  times  introduces  matter  that  is  hardly  germane  to  the  subject. 
About  two-thirds  of  the  volume  is  devoted  to  the  opening  year  of  the 
war,  and  there  is  no  consecutive  account  of  either  the  military  or  civil 
affairs  within  the  state  during  the.  remaining  years  of  the  period.  We 
especially  regret  the  omission  of  a  review  of  the  attitude  of  Kentucky  on 
the    abolition    of    slavery. 

The  absence  of  an  index  and  the  citation  of  references  in  the  text  are 
decided  blemishes  in  the  make-up  of  the  volume.  Captain  Speed's  work, 
while  not  comprehensive,  corrects  several  misconceptions  and  throws  im- 
portant side  lights  upon  some  hitherto  neglected  phases  of  the  history  of 
perhaps  the  most  important  of  the  border  states. 


Herman  V.  Ame.s. 


University  of  Poinsyhania. 


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